Cox et al. in 2006 (Cox, 2006) concluded that the perception of crowding in passenger rail is created from an “interplay of cognitive, social and environmental factors, whereas density refers to objective physical characteristics of the situation.” Similarly, there is enough literature available that establishes the fact that crowding is not just dependent on physical density but also on various physical antecedents, interpersonal factors, individual characteristics and modifiers (Sundstorm, 1978). Culture also plays a role in the perception or tolerance of crowding. Evans et al. (2000) found that residential crowding has a negative effect in terms of psychological distress across different cultures; Mexican Americans and Vietnamese Americans perceive their homes as less crowded (based on a given number of people per room) relative to African Americans or Anglo American individuals (Zheng Li, 2013).
In 2006, Cox et al. developed a theoretical model that depicts the relationship between overcrowding and its impact on health. The figure below shows that model.
Figure 5- Relationship between overcrowding and health (Source: (Cox, 2006)(Zheng Li, 2013) )
“In Australia, researchers Hirsch and Thompson (2011) identified eight factors that may influence the perception of rail crowding: (1) expectations based on previous travel experiences. (2) Environment, which includes weather (for example, perceived crowding would be overweighted in rainy conditions), and carriage, such as the quality of the air conditioning system, air flow within the carriage, the presence and design of handholds for standing passengers, the seating layout and arrangement, the cleanliness of the carriage. (3) Communication—poor quality of information provided...
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...t stress and feelings of exhaustion; and
(3) Evaluations of the psychosocial aspects of the crowded situation and of its ambient environment as well as passenger density do not directly predict stress and feelings of exhaustion (Zheng Li, 2013).
Capturing subjective perceptions of crowding regularly may prove to be a cumbersome and a costly exercise. Thus, it can be used as a mean to identify the gaps between the objective standards and subjective public perceptions. Further, it can be used to identify the cost of crowding by using the willingness to pay estimate of users for a less congested, more comfortable public transport system. The economic method used to calculate and value crowding is known as contingent valuation method, which has its roots in environmental economics and valuation of non-market goods. It is discussed in detail in the following section.
New York City, known for its crowded streets and subways, is filled with people of different ethnicities; those who look, talk and behave differently from others around them. After all, it is called the “melting pot” of the United States for a reason, a place where people from various backgrounds come to assimilate into the American Society. These different humans are identified and categorized into groups based on their skin color and physical features, giving rise to the concept of race.
1 Keating, O. (2004). Are High Speed Trains are the best form of transport for Consumers and Society? Retrieved April 16, 2005, from http://www.o-keating.com/hsr/best.htm
The Crowded Clinic: Critical Analysis The Crowded Clinic Case Study (Colorado State University - Global, n.d.) discusses the issues of practice management as they apply to access to care. Access to care may be as inconvenient as lengthy patient wait times to issues far more serious that may have a profound effect on the health and well-being of a single patient or an entire cohort. In order to properly address the issue and look for a remedy, it is necessary to understand the underlying conditions that create the problem before creating the means to manage the change required to correct the problem. The Crowded Clinic has multiple issues, including social and operational, which are creating the associated inaccessibility to services.
Also, I am able to think about the many people who are sent to either a prison or jail. With that many people being sent to prison and jail, there will be a shortage of space, therefore inmates will be relocated to a room where they will be crowded. With that much overcrowding of inmates, there will be issues involving health and safety. The only way that that issue could be fixed would be by building more facilities where the inmates could be relocated or moved to when there is a shortage of
Transport is a political factor as it is controlled and affected by legislation. This will impact on the staff and opponents (travelling to the stadium) as the accessibility of transport will impact on travelling times – both positively (may avoid traffic on a train e.g.) and negatively (trains, buses etc. may be cancelled or delayed). The price of transportation will also affect the mode of transport that these groups of people may use. Similarly, price and accessibility of transport will affect the consumers also. The view that consumers hold on transport, therefore, is likely to impact on the business i.e. effort to travel, money to travel etc. as this will influence how often they will visit, what they will spend during their visit etc. According to (Mintel 2011,) the amount of people using train as a mode of transport is on the rise, mea...
After I observed four different boarding lines, I soon realized how impatient our society reacts to situations. As soon as the airline attendants announced the boarding for a certain flight, it seemed as if everybody rushed to the...
To see how diverse on the subway, I decided to research and study the aspects what makes the subway the biggest melting pot in New York City. When riding the subway and I noticed the genders of riders are almost split evenly, but I feel like that, there are more females than males on the train. The people who sit down mostly on the train are predominately females, elderly, and women traveling with young children. Most people on the subway will offer a seat to pregnant women, elderly and women with young children. The females on the subway have more privileges over seat and more women tend to sit more over men. Men tends like to stand more over women due to gender role as men are expected to be muscular and standing up kind of show their muscularity than sitting down. The people who stand on the train and hold the handrail are predominately-young people and males. On the subway, the race and ethnicity really depend which subway line and the location of the train that is traveling through at the time. On the J line, the race and ethnicity of those who takes the subway to Williamsburg is the Jewish people. On the F line that goes to Chinatown, many of the people on the train to Chinatown are Asians. They may be Chinese, Korean, Japanese, but I cannot determine what race these people might be. On many
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN MASS GATHERINGS: A CASE STUDY OF MAHA KUMBH MELA 2013 AT PRAYAG, INDIA
Morgan, T. J. H., & Laland, K. N. (2012). The biological bases of conformity.Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6.
At the beginning of the industrial revolution in England during the mid-nineteenth century, the railroad was the most innovative mode of transportation known. The British Rail system was a forerunner in railroad technology, uses, and underground engineering. Though the rail system was extremely slow at first and prohibitively expensive to build and run, the British were not to be dissuaded in their pursuit of non-animal driven transportation. The most advanced mode of transportation prior to the introduction of the rail system was the horse drawn omnibus on a track, called a tram. This paper will examine the rail system from a cultural perspective, presenting the impact the railway had on everyday lives in Victorian London and its surrounding communities.
The number of seriously ill patients admitted to our government hospital has increased steadily over the last few years, and overcrowding of the wards and department is now a common scenario. Some of this congestion is a result of the number of patients receiving care is drastically increasing, health care professionals providing that care is consuming heaps of time, and often, people visiting patients in the hospital. Overcrowding may affect patients' symptoms, clinical outcome, and satisfaction. It can also affect physician's effectiveness, causing frustration among medical staff. It may even contribute to violence on the wards. To add on, one of the most common myths about overcrowding is the
Should students take advantage of the public transportation more seriously than owning a car? The public transportation can solves to numerous problems; the bus transportation can be a universal antidote for bigger issues such as global warming. By taking the bus can save students’ time and money, rather than students who have a car have deal with traffic and expensive parking fee. Students who own a car might experience sitting in such a long traffic, where during the traffic cars may produce noxious gases relieving particle of air that can contribute the affect to human health. The public transportation is the best solution for an enormous population of students, so students’ needs to get on the transit a try. The transition system in the
Howmany.org. "Overpopulation:." Effects of Overpopulation on the Environment and Society. Institute for Population Studies, 2009. Web. 13 Dec. 2013.
On the contrary, using private car is the same convenience of travelling as public transport. When people are in a hurry, they can suddenly go ev...
The most important reason why ownership of private vehicles should not be banned is that vehicles are an essential part of modern city living. Without vehicles, a lot of inconveniences will occur. For example, people would be forced to walk quite a distance to school, in the case of students, or to other places. They need to go through the hassle of waiting for and using public transport. This can be quite the problem in rural areas where public transport is unreliable at best and can even be non-existent. According to (Jong Gatoona 2010), One reason people avoid public transport is that it wastes valuable time. When it comes to going somewhere, public transit will in most cases take more time to reach the desired destination when compared to driving there. For example, 30-40 minutes of driving will instead take 45-65 minutes when public transit is used. This estimate of course does not factor the time taken waiting for vehicles to arrive i...