The Ethical Considerations of Genetic Screening
opinionated Essay
2190 words
Ever since Watson and Crick deciphered the biological code of life, scientists have been busy unraveling the mysteries of life. A recent development in the area of genetic research has been the Human Genome Project (HGP). The HGP is a massive international effort to map and sequence the entire human genetic code. The primary goal of this research is to link certain diseases with abnormal genes that may be possessed by certain people. This would allow researchers the ability to screen individuals for certain diseases. This has already been a success with a number of conditions. PKU is a condition that causes severe retardation in children if nothing is done to prevent it, but by genetically screening the infants, doctors are able to tell who has the disease (Davis 1990). By simply altering the diet of these children, the mental retardation effects of the disease can be prevented. In addition, diseases such as Huntington’s disease, breast cancer, and muscular dystrophy are presently being screened for in humans (Jaroff, 1996). How researchers are able to screen for genes New developments have given researchers the ability to decipher the genetic code of organisms. Some of the techniques that researchers use are RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) analysis and DNA probes. RFLP analysis utilizes enzymes from bacteria that are thought to be used as defense mechanisms against invading viral DNA. The enzymes fragment foreign DNA at specific locations depending on the base sequence (Griffiths, 1996). In order to analyze an organism’s genome a researcher will add a certain restriction enzyme to DNA. This produces small restriction fragments of DNA that vary in length. Electrophoresis is then used to separate out the various fragments of DNA. This is accomplished by subjecting the fragmented DNA to an electrical charge after it has been placed onto an agarose gel plate. Due to differences in length, the DNA restriction fragments will be separated in the gel plate. Another useful tool for scientists has been the DNA probe. A DNA probe is a piece of DNA that binds to certain sequences of the hosts DNA (Devore, 1998). The probe is able to do this because the DNA strand of the probe only binds to the appropriate DNA with a complementary sequence. Scientists label the probe with florescent markers or radioactive markers so that the gene of interest can be visualized. Often probes are used in conjunction with RFLP. After the organisms genome has been fragmented and electrophoresed, an absorbent membrane is placed over the gel and the DNA bands are "blotted" onto the membrane (this technique is called Southern Blotting).
In this essay, the author
- Explains that the human genome project (hgp) is a massive international effort to map and sequence the entire human genetic code.
- Explains how researchers can decipher the genetic code of organisms using rflp analysis and dna probes.
- Explains the use of a dna probe, which binds to certain sequences of the host's dna. scientists label the probe with florescent markers or radioactive markers to visualize the gene.
- Describes the four situations where the ethics of genetic screening come into play.
- Explains fetal screening involves taking tissues from a fetus inside the mother’s womb and screening for genetic abnormalities. the first condition, pku, is tested for because early detection and treatment prevents the onset of sever retardation.
- Explains that in vitro fertilization technology allows doctors to fertilize a human egg outside the mother. cells from the early zygote can be pulled off and screened for genetic abnormalities.
- Explains that neonatal screening is similar to fetal screening in that the purpose is to identify genetic abnormalities in which an early treatment could prevent the symptoms of the disease.
- Explains that testing for economic reasons is different from previous subjects in that it would not benefit the individual in any way. genetic information would be used by insurance companies and employers in order to make a profit.
- Argues that genetic screening would lead to discrimination of individuals, which possess "inferior" genes, and reproductive decisions being based on the genetics of their child.
- Opines that people fear that genetic screening will change the way humans reproduce, and that they would be messing with god's creation and nature.
- Argues that by screening for genetic abnormalities, doctors can prescribe an early treatment that would allow the person to live a longer, more productive life.
- Argues that genetic engineering will be the procedure that will follow genetic screening. molecular genetics promises a greater understanding of how genetic factors influence disease.
- Opines that genetic screening is a narrow minded approach to the situation. galileo was thrown in jail and forced to recant for his sins because he discovered that the earth was not the center of the universe.
- Opines that genetic screening will be a great tool of the future and will lead to the elimination of numerous diseases.
- Opines that there are certain protections that will have to be provided for people though. they state governments are instituting laws against employers and insurance companies using genetic information for employment or insurance purposes.
- Cites joel davis' mapping the code: the human genome project and the choices of modern science. devore, d. genetic screening and ethics an overview.
- Explains griffiths, miller, lewontin, and gelbart, w. m. an introduction to genetic analysis. sixth edition.
- Explains jaroff, leon, and schupf, n. "health law and ethics." american journal of public health. september 1995.
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- Human Genetic Screeningopinionated essayHuman Genetic Screening Humans, like all other living organisms, have genes. These genes instruct our bodies to make proteins, these proteins are the molecules that determine the shape and function of each cell. Each gene or set of genes encode for the production of a particular protein. What is a gene ? The term " gene "was created by Wilhelm Johanssen, a Danish botanist in 1911.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that genes instruct our bodies to make proteins and determine the shape and function of each cell. the term gene was created by wilhelm johanssen, a danish botanist in 1911.
- Explains that human dna carries more or less the same set of dna with some variations. variations in the dna sequence can be neutral, others might have positive or negative influence.
- Explains that human race carries 3000-4000 diseases in its genes, and it is important to distinguish between inherited diseases and infectious diseases. inherited diseases are caused by mutated genes.
- Explains that genetic screening is based on binding of a probe to the dna molecule of the patient or the person to be screened.
- Explains that there are two types of genetic screening — screening of children and adults and screening unborn children.
- Explains that a successful screening program for thalassemia was performed in cyprus with the cooperation of the local church.
- Explains the second type of genetic screening involving screening of unborn children is called prenatal screening.
- Explains that preimplantation screening has been used since 1989. evidence suggests that embryos are not harmed by this procedure.
- Explains that genetic counselors are placed in a powerful position due to the rapid developments in the field of genetic screening.
- Explains the benefits of genetic screening, such as the screening of newborn children for pku deficiency, which was made compulsory in usa in 1960.
- Explains that genetic screening works economically, because it is cheaper to treat patients before serious damage is done to them by a genetic disease, than to keep sufferers in institutions.
- Explains that many common cancers such as lung, breast, and colon develop by step-wise accumulation of mutations affecting many genes. genetic screening may help predicting a cancer and can be used to warn people
- Explains that the rapid progress in this field during the last decade led to issues of the consequences of new technology, which in many cases have a negative effect on people whose genetic tests reveal that they are under risk of genetic diseases.
- Explains that carrying a gene for susceptibility, such as the breast cancer gene brca1, does not necessarily mean one will get the disease. geneticists and physicians generally agree that no one should be tested just because of fear of an illness.
- Predicts a dramatic increase in the amount of patients genetic data, which can affect the choice of spouse, decisions on whether to have children, and prenatal screening and selective abortion.
- Opines that genetic information can be a great benefit to individuals, but the danger of it becoming available to others could lead to genetic discrimination. recent surveys indicated that health insurance coverage was denied to many people due to their genetic status.
- Opines that it is ethical to use abortion for some treatable diseases such as pku, which can be treated with dietary measures. genetic screening tests for people with mental diseases lead to unfair labeling of people.
- Describes the issues that could be discussed about the right of people to have their genetic data confidential.
- Argues that if we let the parents choose characters for their children, such as being free from the most common genetically inherited diseases, then this might have a harmful effect on social attitudes toward other people who failed to meet such characteristics.
- Opines that the use of these new techniques raises ethical issues, such as screening embryos for genetic diseases and allowing couples to select the sex of their child.
- Opines that it is difficult to say a final word about the need to proceed with this kind of research or to stop because this issue is complicated and has different scientific, psychological, economical, emotional, ethical, and religious aspects.
- Opines that if the application of any new technology leads to negative impacts on the members of the society, it will be unaccepted by the majority.
- Opines that studies and applications of this technology should proceed because it will have a positive effect in finding the solution for many fatal diseases that affect thousands of people every day.
- Cites ahfmr news letter, 1995, and biosis home page. macer, d. 1990, shaping genes : ethics, law and science of using new genetic technology
2676 wordsRead More - How to Isolate a Gene?comparative essayOne of the most common technique used till date, is by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments and then run on gel electrophoresis for separation according to their lengths. As we know that a single strand of plant DNA or animal DNA contain tens of thousands of genes, each working for the production of a specific protein essential for the growth and survival of the organism. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) can also be used for the amplification of genes segments which can be isolated through same procedure as gel electrophoresis. Selectable markers are used for the identification and The DNA Band at the correct size should be the one containing the gene, and it can then be excised from the gel. The need of an hour is to isolate individual gene and determine its function in shorter span.
In this essay, the author
- Explains the various techniques for the isolation of a gene, which are used to genetically engineer the organism.
- Explains that restriction enzymes cut the dna into fragments and run on gel electrophoresis for separation according to their length. pcr (polymerase chain reaction) can also be used for amplification of genes segments.
- Explains that the transcript-based cloning technique was applied on the dna of medicago truncatula, a member of the legume family.
- Describes the process of destroying the maximum number of plants seed through radiation and then growing those exposed seeds in laboratory. the mutant gene is developed or raised as a result of this physical mutation.
- Explains that if anyone is interested in finding a gene responsible for normal root growth, he would look for mutant plants with defective roots and conduct an exhaustive analysis of the plant's dna until they located the defective gene.
- Explains that in healthy plant and animal cells, genes are responsible for the production of proteins. mutated genes carry faulty instructions that produce defective copies of rna.
- Explains that the pnas experiment used transcript-based cloning to identify a plant gene that plays an important role in the production of usable nitrogen.
- Explains that soil-dwelling bacteria transform atmospheric nitrogen into a compound that plants can absorb in their roots and then convert into proteins. animals get their primary source of nitrogen from plants, which make bacterial nitrogen fixation essential to all animal and human.
- Explains that identifying genes that allow plants to establish beneficial symbiosis for nitrogen fixation is a key to sustainable agriculture.
- Compares normal medicago plants with a mutant version raised in the lab. this mutant exhibited calcium spiking behavior but unlike their counterparts, they were unable to establish symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
- Explains that using microarray gene-chip technology, they monitor rna levels produced by 10,000 genes in both normal and mutant plants.
- Concludes that the dmi3 gene may play an important role in the plant's response to calcium oscillations.
870 wordsRead More - Biotechnologyexplanatory essayThe first step of transformation is to select a piece of DNA to be inserted into a vector. The second step is to cut the selected piece of DNA with a restriction enzyme and then ligate the DNA insert into the vector with DNA Ligase. The insert contains a selectable marker which allows for identification of recombinant molecules. This marker is often used so a host cell without a vector dies when exposed to a certain antibiotic, and the host with the vector will live because it has now become resistant. The most common example is a possible host cell of E. Coli. The selectable markers can be for antibiotic resistance, or any other characteristic which can distinguish transformed hosts from untransformed hosts.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that recombinant dna is made by a variety of methods, including transformation, phage introduction, and non-bacterial transformation.
- Explains that genetic engineering is one of the more prominent biotechnological uses and applications for such science.
- Explains the difference between biotechnology companies and pharmaceutical companies. biotechnology uses living organisms to make or modify products to improve a number of sectors.
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In this essay, the author
- Explains that the patient's genetic composition revealed a missense mutation in the hnf4a gene, as shown in table 2.
- Explains the results of the genetic dna sequencing and details regarding mutations identified.
- Explains that the patient had to give consent for the genetic testing before any further analysis could go ahead. blood samples were taken in craigavon area hospital by a registered nurse via venepuncture.
- Explains that a missense mutation occurred in the hnf4a gene located on chromosome 20, exon 4, which altered the physical and chemical properties of the overall gene.
1217 wordsRead More - The Pros And Cons Of Genetic Screeningexplanatory essayIn today’s scientific world the use of fetal genetic screening unethical has it peaks and valley, Genetic testing has come a long way. Genetic Screening allows doctors to see the chances of the fetus growing a certain genetic conditions and Diagnostic screening is to see a certain type of certain conditions. There is a few test that can be done one of them is prenatal screening, usually done in the first trimester which is the first stage of the Integrated screening are performed, 10 to 13 weeks of pregnancy by an ultrasound. The ultrasound will display the fetus age, measure fetus body, (neck, head, back, skin). There is three blood test that can be done in order to calculate the two level of a substance in the blood called pregnancy-associated
In this essay, the author
- Explains that fetal screening affects 1% risk of a miscarriage, which can increase the abortions percentage. some parents don't agree with it, saying it will change human procreation.
- Opines that the benefits outweigh the consequences of bringing a helpless child into this world.
- Narrates how they terminated their pregnancy at 18 weeks, knowing they could not afford to be in and out of hospital with a newborn baby if they ever made it home alive.
- Explains that genetic testing has come a long way in today's scientific world. genetic screening allows doctors to see the chances of the fetus growing certain genetic conditions.
- Opines that screening early is a blessing in hoped to discover any disorders and be able to find treatment quickly. many parents don't want to carry their child and have him suffer in the real world.
987 wordsRead More - DNA Fingerprintingexplanatory essayIt is widely known that each individual has a DNA profile as unique as a fingerprint. Actually, over 99% of all 3 billion nucleotides in human DNA which we inherit from each parent are identical among all individuals. However, for every 1000 nucleotides that we inherit there is 1 site of variation or polymorphism, in the population. These DNA polymorphisms change the length of the DNA fragments produced by the digestion of restriction enzymes . The resulting fragments are called restriction fragments length polymorphisms. Gel electrophoresis can be used to separate and determine the size of the RFLPs. The exact number and size of fragments produced by a specific restriction enzyme digestion varies from individual to individual.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that 99% of the 3 billion nucleotides in human dna are identical among all individuals. dna polymorphisms change the length of dna fragments produced by the digestion of restriction enzymes.
- Explains that dna fingerprinting has proved valuable, not only for convicting felons and exonerating the innocent, but also for establishing maternity or paternity and proving family relationships.
- Describes how genetic fingerprinting techniques were discovered by geneticist alec j. jeffreys in 1984, when he was studying the gene for myoglobin.
324 wordsRead More - Genetic Testing And Ethical Dilemmasopinionated essayGenetic testing has now created a whole new source of medical information for patients. This brings rise to an ethical, legal and social issue, in regards to patient confidentially. However, nurses must be familiar with the nature and the source of the genetic information, to ensure the patient privacy. For example, a woman tests positive for the BRCA1 gene that has been linked to breast cancer. She states to the nurse that she does not want to share this medical information with her sister, because they are not getting along. The ethical concern is that, her sister would have 1 in 2 chance of having the same gene. In this case the nurse does not have the authority to breach the patient confidentiality of the patient nurse relationship (Lea,
In this essay, the author
- Opines that nurses must be familiar with the nature and the source of the genetic information, to ensure patient privacy.
146 wordsRead More - Ethical Issues In Predictive Genetic Testingexplanatory essayGenetic testing is defined as examining ones DNA. This test can reveal changes or anomalies that may cause illness or disease; this is according to the Mayo Clinic. Genetic testing has been around for quite some time although it’s only been approved for the testing of certain diseases. There are three forms of genetic testing, carrier, diagnostic and genetic testing. According to the Journal of Medical Ethics, diagnostic testing is looking into whether there’s a disease in the body/embryo and how far the disease has progressed. This diagnostic process is usually done in embryos and babies. The way we know about a certain gene or trait that would adversely affect the baby is by using the carrier test. There’s also predictive
In this essay, the author
- Explains that genetic testing has been around for quite some time, although it's only been approved for the testing of certain diseases.
- Explains that genetic testing is different from testing for other disorders. genetic testing can be crucial in decisions taken by an individual especially if the test was accurate about any disease.
- Explains that the journal of medical ethics/ genetic testing denotes that there should be a professional to help the patient through the process of acceptance and understanding on the disease.
- Explains that utilitarians believe moral decisions should be decided by calculating a burden/benefit ratio, which promotes the good of society over that of individual.
- Explains the justice principle within the realm of genetic testing. the doctor is always looking for the best way to help patients and inform them of various procedures or treatments available.
832 wordsRead More - What´s Genetic Testing Ethical?analytical essayGenetic testing is a fast growing technology, which is creating a bigger ethical/social issue. Arguments arise as some believe that the choice made by parents to genetically create their baby results in a smaller parent to child bond due to the idea of designer expectations and screening for imperfections. There are also fears that parents will begin to perceive their children as products apposed to people, an ‘object’ designed to fit the parents interests. Another social implication is that the process of PGD will only be an option to the wealthy. This implies that in the future, genetic diseases will be associated only with the economically unprivileged. In the Unites States 2.3 million couples are considered infertile, this creates a large
In this essay, the author
- Argues that genetic testing is a fast-growing technology, which is creating an ethical/social issue. there are fears that the process of pgd will only be an option to the wealthy.
177 wordsRead More - Commercial Genetic Testing Is NOT Ethicalexplanatory essayDon’t do commercial genetic testing, it’s $1,000 and a big waste of your time and money. Not only are you wasting your time and money on something that isn’t ethical, you’re giving the companies the right to your past. How would you know if they’re trustworthy as well? I feel there needs to be more transparency when it comes to commercial DNA testing. Commercial genetic testing is unethical because you don’t know what they’re going to do with your DNA and also you’ll be losing a big part of your privacy.
In this essay, the author
- Opines that commercial genetic testing is unethical because you don't know what they're going to do with your dna and you'll be losing a big part of your privacy.
- Explains that ethics is the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation. when people do unethical activities, they think of them doing activities that go against the public and our own morals.
- Explains how 23andme gives you results by sequencing the dna, which tells you if you are at risk for genetic disorders.
- Opines that unregulated or commercial dna tests are unethical because of the fact that you could make other un ethical decisions like choosing if a baby should stay alive or not or losing your privacy.
- Explains that the data is inconsistent with commercial dna testing. scott brown wanted elizabeth warrner to prove that she was 1/32 cherokee by doing a dna test.
1187 wordsRead More