Environmental Impact Of Urbanization In Indonesia

However, despite these dwellers moving to improve their standard of living, urban growth poses a threat to sustainable development in urban areas, as it implies an increase in the consumption space (Williams 2000). The environmental impacts of urban growth have raised concerns among planners and stimulated other models of urban expansion such as "smart growth” (Mohammadi et al. 2012). Unfettered urbanisation has strained the ability of governments to manage with the increasing demands for housing, services and employment in developing countries.

Housing availability is one of the most difficult challenges in Indonesia. At present, there are ‘54,000 hectares of slums in 10,000 locations across the country, housing close to 18 million people’

With continuous socio-economical issues, the housing shortage in Indonesia is likely to increase. In response to this, the government has introduced a self-housing improvement program for squatter settlements located in the river basins of Yogyakarta, an area prone to frequent flooding (Bredenoord, Van Lindert & Smets 2014). Self-help housing has allowed residents the opportunity to improve their housing condition and standard of living, however has simultaneously contributed to the rapid growth of urbanisation.

Furthermore, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has emphasised that the health implication of housing is 'intimately related to health as poor housing conditions provide defences ' (Terwari 1991 cited in Ray 2002, p. 1).

Squatter settlements are usually areas of socio-economic, environmental and health issues. As a

Practical Action, a British charity, has constructed roofing tiles made from sand and clay to improve the housing structure (Lyons, Schilderman & Boano 2010). Additionally, the United Nations’ Human Settlement Programme have been responsible for providing electricity and water pipes to squatter settlements, immensely improving the standard of living with basic essentials (Lyons, Schilderman & Boano 2010). Therefore, the quality of life urban areas appear to provide squatters has potentially influenced the urban expansion of squatter settlements around major cities in developing countries.

In developing countries, small-scale rural squatters, struggling to earn enough income, often seek alternative means of employment in major cities. Majority of squatter settlement households are categorised in the lower income group, often earning income at the near minimum wage level (Srinivas 2005). Therefore, their primary concern is a source of income and place of employment. Due to the size of urban areas and the variety of job opportunities on offer, squatters are drawn to the ‘bright lights’ of opportunity and chance on offer in major cities, such as having their children attend school (Kramer