2.1 Surfactant and biosurfactant The amphiphilic molecules which is known as surfactants have been used widely in different industries including petroleum, environmental, food, agricultural, bioprocessing, cosmetic, and biological industries. Surfactants contain a hydrophilic part and hydrophobic part which make them capable to reduce surface and interfacial tension of liquids. However, these compounds are chemically synthesized which is mainly petroleum-based and toxic to the environment. These compounds may cause pollution to the environment because of their non-biodegradable properties (Banat et al., 2000; Fakruddin, 2013). Hence, the interest in biosurfactants increased rapidly in recent years as an alternatives to chemical surfactants (Banat et al., 2000; Lang & Wullbrandt, 1999).
Biosurfactants are amphiphilic surface-active compounds made up of hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains which are naturally produced by bacteria, yeast, and fungi (Banat et al., 2010). Bacteria known as the main group of microorganisms that capable to produce biosurfactants (Femi-Ola et al., 2015). According to Mulligan (2009), biosurfactants are environmentally friendly compared to synthetic surfactants.
2.1.1 Properties of biosurfactants
Biosurfactants have the similar properties as synthetic surfactants in their ability to reduce surface
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(2015), biosurfactants can be as part of the cell membrane of the microorganisms and these compounds also can be produced extracellularly by these microorganisms through fermentation. In addition, biosurfactants are classified based on their chemical structure and microbial origin. The five major classes of biosurfactants include glycolipids, lipopeptides and lipoproteins, phospholipids and fatty acids, polymeric surfactants, and particulate surfactants (Desai & Banat, 1997). Table 2.1 shows the biosurfactants produced by various microorganisms and their importance to different industries (Saharan et al.,
Biological waxes are esters of long-chain (C14 to C36) saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with long-chain (C16 to C30) alcohols. Their melting points (60 to 100 _C) are generally higher than those of triacylglycerols.In plankton, the free-floating microorganism sat the bottom of the food chain for marine animals, and waxes are the chief storage form of metabolic fuel. Waxes also serve a diversity of other functions related to their water-repellent properties and their firm consistency. Certain skin glands of vertebrates secrete waxes to protect hair and skin and keep it pliable, lubricated, and waterproof. Birds, particularly waterfowl, secrete waxes from their preen glands to keep their feathers water-repellent. The shiny leaves of holly, rhododendrons, poison ivy, and many tropical plants are coated with a thick layer of waxes, which prevents excessive evaporation of water and protects against parasites. Biological waxes find a variety of applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other industries. Lanolin (from lamb’s wool), beeswax carnauba wax (from a Brazilian palm tree), and wax extracted from spermaceti oil (from whales ;)
The resistance to many antibiotics is a well-known property of bacterial biofilms. Biofilms are dense...
Osmosis and Diffusion Investigation Aim: To examine the process of osmosis and diffusion. Part A: Step 1: Q1.[IMAGE] Q2. The jiggling motion is visible because the fat globules are constantly being bombarded by smaller particles. [IMAGE] Q3.
Mycobacterium is a bacillus –a rod shaped, cord forming, bacteria. The reason the organism creates problems for its host is due to the fact that its cell wall contains large wax like lipids called mycolic acids. Mycolic acids are strong hydrophobic molecules that form a lipid...
Disinfection is applied in water as well as wastewater treatment as a finishing step so as to destroy pathogens but the cause of concern regarding the disinfection process is the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Natural organic matter (NOM) in water has been considered as the predominant DBP precursors. Disinfectants are powerful oxidants that oxidize the organic matter present in water forming DBPs. Chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramines are the most common disinfectants used nowadays and each produces its own suite of chemical DBPs in finished drinking water (Richardson, 2003). DBPs so formed pose a threat to human health because of their potential to cause cancer and reproductive/developmental effects. Most developed nations have regulated concentration of DBPs so as to minimize exposure to potentially harmful DBPs while maintaining adequate disinfection and control of targeted
You have been asked to design an oral liquid formulation of ibuprofen for paediatric use.
Despite of general properties of enzymes, the properties also varies from where it comes from and how it been produced. For instance, the enzymatic saccharification method in lignocellulosic bioethanol is generated by hydrolyzing cellulose and hemicelluloses. This method gets high attention because of its higher theoretical yield compared to other methods (Taneda et al., 2012). Acremonium cellulolyticus with high activities of cellulase, amylase and pectinase enzymes allow it for the easy separation of solids/liquids in potato pulp, resulting in high saccharification efficiency and a high recovery rate of products (Gao et al., 2014). On the other hand, Enzyme-modified carboxymethyl starch (ECMS) is beneficial in enhancing water holding capacity, emulsion stability and improving sensory characteristics of sausages with a declined fat content (Luo and Xu, 2011). Lipases and phospholipases of dormant cotton seeds have stability in heat, various media and nature of the hydrolysis of the lipids properties (Rakhi...
The Biological Importance of Water as a Solvent and as a Medium for Living Organisms
...ond sets of data concluded that sucrose, glucose, and salt are hypotonic solutions that will remove water from a cell due to their tonicity. In the final part of the lab, results concluded that water potential moves along its concentration gradient (high to low) in an attempt to maintain equilibrium. It was determined that the orange and green solutions were hypotonic as they added water to the cells, whereas the blue, red, purple and yellow solutions were hypertonic as they sucked water from the cells.
Bacterial cells, like plant cells, are surrounded by a cell wall. However, bacterial cell walls are made up of polysaccharide chains linked to amino acids, while plant cell walls are made up of cellulose, which contains no amino acids. Many bacteria secrete a slimy capsule around the outside of the cell wall. The capsule provides additional protection for the cell. Many of the bacteria that cause diseases in animals are surrounded by a capsule. The capsule prevents the white blood cells and antibodies from destroying the invading bacterium. Inside the capsule and the cell wall is the cell membrane. In aerobic bacteria, the reactions of cellular respiration take place on fingerlike infoldings of the cell membrane. Ribosomes are scattered throughout the cytoplasm, and the DNA is generally found in the center of the cell. Many bacilli and spirilla have flagella, which are used for locomotion in water. A few types of bacteria that lack flagella move by gliding on a surface. However, the mechanism of this gliding motion is unknown. Most bacteria are aerobic, they require free oxygen to carry on cellular respiration. Some bacteria, called facultatibe anaerobes can live in either the presence or absence of free oxygen. They obtain energy either by aerobic respiration when oxygen is present or by fermentation when oxygen is absent. Still other bacteria cannot live in the presence of oxygen. These are called obligate anaerobes. Such bacteria obtain energy only fermentation. Through fermentation, different groups of bacteria produce a wide variety of organic compounds. Besides ethyl alcohol and lactic acid, bacterial fermentation can produce acetic acid, acetone, butyl alcohol, glycol, butyric acid, propionic acid, and methane, the main component of natural gas. Most bacteria are heterotrophic bacteria are either saprophytes or parasites. Saprophytes feed on the remains of dead plants and animals, and ordinarily do not cause disease. They release digestive enzymes onto the organic matter. The enzymes breakdown the large food molecules into smaller molecules, which are absorbed by the bacterial cells. Parasites live on or in living organisms, and may cause disease. A few types of bacteria are Autotrophic, they can synthesize the organic nutrients they require from inorganic substances. Autotrophic bacteria are either photosynthetic or Chemosynthetic. The photosynthetic bacteria contain chlorophyll that are different from the plant chlorophyll. In bacterial photosynthesis, hydrogen is obtained by the splitting of compounds other than water.
Biofilms are defined as complex aggregates of microorganisms which are interlinked and secrete extracellular slime, which forms the matrix for the films. The extracellular slime is chiefly made up of polysaccharides. Biofilms are usually irreversibly attached to a surface, in that once a biofilm is attached to a surface, it is quite difficult to remove. Mineral salt crystals, clay, silt particles, etc. are also sometimes present within the biofilm matrix (depending upon the surroundings). The majority of biofilms found in the environment are either phytoplanktonic or bacterial (Donlan, Sept 2002).
* To Save Resources by either reducing the production of standard Polypropylene plastics by replacing it with a less resource-intensive plastic.
Biofilms are formed by a six step process. First is a reversible process, when an organic monolayer(made of polysaccharides or glycoproteins) absorbs to the surface, altering the chemical and physical properties of the surface. This makes the surface more conditioned and increase the chance that planktonic bacteria will attach. Secondly, also a reversible step, is when the free-floating or planktonic bacteria encounter the conditioned surface, and some attachment of the bacteria may occur. The third step is when the bacteria is left attached too long, then an irreversible attachment occurs. F...
By taking a Carbon Dioxide, rich substance and mixing it with a yeast, solution fermentation will occur, and then it could be determined if it is a good energy-producer. In this study glacatose, sucrose, glycine, glucose, and water were used to indicate how fast fermentation occurred. The overall result shows that monosaccharides in particular galactose and glucose were the best energy source for a cell.
Water alone can’t remove dirt. Soap allows oil and to mix so the dirt can be effectively removed. Surfactants lower the tension in water and help break down the oil and grease. Detergents have hydrophobic chemical chains which are repelled by water, whereas hydrophilic chains are attracted to water. In general, hydrophobic and hydrophilic chains work together to attack oil and water and break them down faster and easier.