Starch in carbohydrates is the major source of dietary glucose which is the main focal point of carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. The energy generation process runs through a number of different metabolic pathways of glucose oxidation and is divided into 4 main stages.
Digestion
Following a meal, it is the first stage of carbohydrate metabolism which breaks down food molecules into smaller chemical units that can be utilised further by various cells. Small amount of complex carbohydrates begin their digestion in the mouth where the amylase enzyme from saliva catalyses the hydrolyses of complex starch molecules and the production of smaller polysaccharide and disaccharide molecules.
Digestion stops in the stomach due to deactivation of the amylase enzyme by acidic juice until the contents of the stomach are moved into the small intestine. Secreted by pancreas, amylase activates the break down of polysaccharides further into shorter chains with mainly maltose and glucose presented.
The digestion moves to the outer membranes of
Oxidation of L-Malate to regenerate Oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenate and formation of NADH.
CAC is regulated by concentration of ATPs, i.e. by the body’s need of energy. When the body is not active, the high concentration of ATP inhibits step 1 (citrate synthase).
The purpose of CAC is the production of 3 NADH (1 in each step 3, 4 and 8) and 1 FADH2 (step 6) that are able to carry electrons and proton ions into the 4th metabolic stage for further synthesis of ATPs.
Electron Production Chain (EPC) and Oxidative Phosphorelation (OP)
It is a series of reactions when electrons and hydrogen ions are passed to intermediate electron carriers located in four distinct protein complexes integrated within the inner mitochondrial membrane: NADH-coenzyme Q reductase, Sucinate-coenzyme Q reductase, Coenzyme Q-cytochrome c reductase and Citochrome c oxidase. Two electron carriers, coenzyme
During digestion, the body breaks down food into smaller molecules that could then be used by the body’s cells and tissues in order to perform functions. This starts off in the mouth with the physical movements of chewing and the chemical breakdown by saliva. Enzymes in the stomach break food down further after traveling from the mouth through the esophagus. The food from here then moves into the small intestine, where pancreatic juices and enzymes dissolve proteins, carbohydrates, and fibers, and bile from the liver breaks down fats into these small molecules. Any portion of the fibers or food that were unable to be broken down are passed from the small intestine to the large intestine, which is where the digestive tract transitions into the excretory tract, then the colon and out of the rectum. Any liquids that have been stripped of their nutrients by the body proceed from the stomach to the kidneys. In the kidneys, sodium ions (Na+), uric acid, and urea are exchanged with water, which moves urinary bladder and is excreted through the
With respiration of carbohydrates, the food is then converted to carbohydrates usually hexose sugar before being respired. There is an oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water with the release of energy.
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the saliva and stomach where alpha-amylase hydrolyses alpha-1, 4 glycosidic bonds between glucose molecules in starch, forming maltotriose, the disaccharide maltose and dextrin’s made of five to ten glucose molecules (Lim, 2007). The disaccharides sucrose and lactose come directly from food. There are four enzymes found on the brush-border membrane responsible for hydrolysing sucrose, lactose and the products of starch break down, into monosaccharaides so that they can be absorbed (Lieberman et al, 2007). These enzymes are known as glycosidases and include; glucoamylase, lactase, trehalase and sucrase isomaltase (Lieberman et al, 2007). Sucrase isomaltase...
The CoQ10 stays in the mitochondria. This is the energy-generating component of the body cells. This coenzyme produces the ATP or adenosine-5-triphosphate. The ATP boosts protein synthesis and muscle contraction processes.
Glucose is liberated from dietary carbohydrate such as starch or sucrose by hydrolysis within the
It is the slowest working metabolic pathway for the production of energy in the body. This cycle, unlike the energy consumption in sprinting, allows the body to maintain its energy level during endurance activities. The citric acid cycle, or the Krebs cycle, allows humans to sustain long-term energy (long running) because it produces more energy than the other pathways. The Krebs cycle uses lots of enzymes, which reduce the amount of energy required for a chemical reaction. These enzymes help the body use less and create more energy. By using enzymes in the absence of more energy, the Krebs cycle is different from other metabolic pathways. Through the catabolism of fats, sugars, and proteins, an acetate is created and used in the citric acid cycle. The Krebs cycle converts NAD+ into NADH. These are then used by another system called the oxidative phosphorylation pathway to generate
The hypothesis is supported by the experiment in that with increased starch concentration, the amylase activity increased each time and the salivary amylase functioned best at higher concentrations of starch. Also, for the most part, the reaction followed the general trend of how at lower concentrations, the increase in reaction rate is greater, while at higher concentrations, the increase in reaction rate is less. Despite some discrepancies in trend, specifically at the 40g/L concentration, figure 1 still displays how the amylase activity eventually reaches a plateau, as mentioned in the hypothesis. From the results it appears that the point of saturation for this reaction is at the concentration 50g/L as the amylase activity rates for 50g/L
Glucose is needed to create the body’s source of energy, ATP, and is found in carbohydrates. Since heterotrophs are unable to produce the food, or glucose, they need for cellular respiration, they obtain this food by consuming autotrophs or other heterotrophs. When a carbohydrate is consumed it begins its journey by traveling through several digestive organs, including the stomach and the small intestine, where it is broken down into the glucose the body needs to create energy. An organ is composed of different tissues that have come together to function in a coordinated manner (textbook page 20, para 7). Therefore digestive organs are organs that work together to breakdown food into the nutrients needed for the organism to function. Once the carbohydrate has been broken down into glucose, through a process of absorption, it enters the blood stream and is transported to cells where it undergoes a chemical process where the glucose is converted to
Three steps can explain cellular respiration: glycolysis, the TCA cycle (or citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis is divided into two different stages: energy investment and energy payoff. During glycolysis, “ATP is both required and released at different stages” (Jordan & North 2013). The result is a net gain of two ATP, two NADH, and the production of two pyruvates. This process takes place in the cytoplasm. The pyruvates then go through the plasma membrane and into the mitochondrial matrix. During this pyruvate processing, NADH and CO2 are released and the pyruvates are converted into acetyl CoA. The acetyl CoA then goes through the TCA cycle, producing ATP, NADH, FADH2, and CO2. Finally, NADH and FADH2 go through the electron transport cha...
The food digestion plays an undeniably important role in our body system, which is the main way for the human kind to gain nutrients and energy in order to growth, repairs the body cells, and carry out the daily routine (National Institutes of Health, 2013). The foods and drinks that people consume are required to be turned into the smaller nutrient-molecules before the blood absorbs and carries the various nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals to the body cells (National Institutes of Health, 2013). According to National Institutes of Health (2013), the decomposition of food nutrients are completed through the digestive system which form by the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also defined as digestive tract, and along liver, pancreas and gallbladder as well. The GI tract is made up of a series of hollow organs with the connection from mouth to anus, which consisting buccal cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Based on Batrisya (2013), the food digestive process are classified into four stages, that are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion or elimination (refer to Figure 1 in Appendix 1).
During catabolism, chemical energy such as ATP is released. The energy released during catabolism is released in three phases. During the first phase, large molecules are broken down. These include molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. These molecules are converted into amino acids and carbohydrates are converted into different types of sugar. The lipids are broken down into fatty acids
Imagine you are eating a sandwich containing wheat bread, ham, lettuce, and Swiss cheese. Do you ever wonder where the nutrients go from all of the previous listed ingredients? Well, when a bite of this sandwich is taken, the mouth produces a saliva enzyme called amylase. This enzyme immediately goes to work by breaking down the carbohydrates that are in the bread. Once, the bite is completely chewed, the contents then are swallowed and go down the esophagus and begin to head towards the upper esophageal sphincter and the is involuntarily pushed towards the stomach. The next passage for the sandwich is to go through the lower esophageal sphincter; which transports the sandwich into the stomach.
The function of the digestive system in the human body is to break down macromolecules into their individual monomers so the body can process them. There are two major types of digestion that occur in the body. These are mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion is the mechanical process of breaking down food particles into smaller pieces. Chemical digestion is the secretion of enzymes and chemicals that break down the food even further into their individual molecules. Some common enzymes in the human body are amylase, pepsin and lipase. Enzymes are catalysts that speed up reactions but aren’t reactants themselves. Different enzymes also react on different substrates, for example, amylase reacts on carboh...
The exocrine function of the pancreas is that it produces enzymes that aids in the digestion of food. There are three important enzymes that are crucial in helping with digestion. The first digestive enzyme is amylase. Amylase function is to break down carbohydrates. The amylase enzyme is made in two places: the cells in the digestive tract that produces saliva and the main one specifically found in the pancreas that are called the pancreatic amylase (Marie, Joanne; Media Demand, “What Are the Functions of Amylase, Protease and Lipase Digestive Enzymes”). The amylase in the pancreas passes through the pancreatic duct to the small intestines. This amylase in the pancreas completes the process of digestion of carbohydrates. Consequently, this leads to the production of glucose that gets absorbed into the bloodstream and gets carried throughout the body. The next enzyme that aids in digestion of food is protease. While amylase breaks down carbohydrates, protease breaks down protein. Protease breaks down protein into the building block form of amino acids. The three main proteases that it produces are: pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin (Marie, Joanne; Media Demand, “What Are the Functions of Amylase, Protease and Lipase Digestive Enzymes”). Pepsin does not occur in the pancreas but it is the catalysis in starting the digestion of proteins. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are the two proteases that occur in
Mouth- Digestion begins in the mouth. Physical actions, such as chewing, breaks food into small parts so it can be easily digested. Next, salivary glands secrete an enzyme called saliva to mix with food to start the breaking down of carbohydrates (WebMD (2).) From the mouth, food travels to the pharynx, or throat, by swallowing,