Starch, Glycogen and Cellulose as Efficient Storage and Structural Compounds
Starch is a complex carbohydrate, it's a mixture of amylose and
amylopectin both of which are polysaccharides containing α-glucose
molecules linked via a condensation reaction.
Amylose is a long, straight chain of α-glucose molecules, these are
linked together by a 1,4 glycosidic bond, where 1 & 4 are carbon
reducing centres.
+ +…
α-glucose molecule α-glucose molecule
= + H20
amylose
These chains of α-glucose coil to form spirals and these are held in
place by hydrogen bonds.
Amylopectin, on the other hand, is a branched chain due to some of its
glucose residues joining via a 1,6 glycosidic bond, however this is
still formed by a condensation reaction.
Due to starch being made up from amylose and amylopectin which are
both polysaccharides and produced by a condensation reaction, starch
can easily be broken down when H20 is added and the -o- glycosidic
bond is broken, this process is called hydrolysis. The breaking of
this bond has a result of 2 α-glucose molecules…it's the opposite
reaction of condensation. Now being in the form of glucose it can be
used in respiration by the plant.
Also due to amylose and amylopectin both being of a compact nature, it
being a characteristic of the two, a large amount of starch can be
stored in a relatively small space. Not only that but starch is also
insoluble and therefore it won't affect water potential (ψ) in the
cells in which it's stored, therefore it won't cause water movement
across membranes and so will stay within 1 part of a plant.
All these factors contribute to ...
... middle of paper ...
...hol) on each glucose monomer the pattern in cellulose is that of
the glucose unit being 'flipped over' when compared to the glucose
prior to itself in order for the OH groups to be in the correct
position for a 1,4 glycosidic bond to form. This in turn allows two
hydrogen atoms to be side by side and as a result a strong hydrogen
bond is formed, adding to the structure of cellulose.
+ +…
β-glucose β-glucose
= + H20
Cellulose
Cellulose is an efficient structural compound due to;
· It being insoluble, so will stay rigid even when wet.
· It's very strong so can withstand opposing forces.
Overall starch, glycogen and cellulose are efficient at their jobs,
whether it's storage or structural, for several reasons all of which
have hopefully been successfully highlighted throughout this essay.
This lab used many test to determine which functional groups were present in certain substance. The Benedicts test was used to identify reducing sugars (glucose and fructose) based on their ability to reuce the Capric ions to cuprous oxide at high pH. The Cuprous oxide is reddish orange in color when shown to be at high levels by the test, and greenish when at low levels. In both the onion juice and glucose solution the reducing sugar levels were very high, because the test came back dark orange. The starch solution had relatively low levels of reducing sugar present and this was seen by the test coming back cloundy blue, green and brown.
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the saliva and stomach where alpha-amylase hydrolyses alpha-1, 4 glycosidic bonds between glucose molecules in starch, forming maltotriose, the disaccharide maltose and dextrin’s made of five to ten glucose molecules (Lim, 2007). The disaccharides sucrose and lactose come directly from food. There are four enzymes found on the brush-border membrane responsible for hydrolysing sucrose, lactose and the products of starch break down, into monosaccharaides so that they can be absorbed (Lieberman et al, 2007). These enzymes are known as glycosidases and include; glucoamylase, lactase, trehalase and sucrase isomaltase (Lieberman et al, 2007). Sucrase isomaltase...
Carbohydrates are more than just fuels for the body and have other uses. Carbohydrates are hydrocarbons containing a carbonyl group and many alcohol groups. Their polymers can complex or they be simple and contain just one repeating monosaccharide, the roles of polymers can be many such as structural, storage or even signalling. (Tymoczko et al, 2012 p. 131)
Investigating the Effect of Sucrose Concentration on the Conversion into Glucose and Fructose by Invertase
We are all aware of sugar, the sweet delicious substance commonly used in food and beverages, but table sugar is not the only sugar there is. There are many artificial sugars that many people now-a-days aren’t aware of. In this research paper I will be identifying four different types of synthetic sugars which are: Saccharin, Aspartame, Sucralose, and Sodium cyclamate. Synthetic sugars, or artificial sweeteners, have both positive and negative effects that can either make a big impact in our body or a small impact. Synthetic sugars can be used in many ways but are most commonly used in regular everyday foods and beverages or they can be mixed with other artificial sweeteners. Synthetic sugars tend to look very similar to real sugar so sometimes it may be hard to distinguish them with the naked eye.
Differentiating between fatty acids can be in two main ways: the length of free fatty acid chains and the fatty acids degree of saturation. The number of carbon atoms determine the length of fatty acid chains which often categorized as short chain fatty acids (SCFA), Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), Long-chain fatty acids (LCFA), and Very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA) with aliphatic tails longer than 22 carbons, while the number of double bonds between carbon atoms determine their degree of saturation. Fats can be categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Furthermore, the unsaturated fats divide into monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats. Fatty acid can be saturated if there are no double bonds
One of nature's greatest possessions, is life, and every part of life depends on molecules. Four common molecules are Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and Nucleic Acids. Within these molecules contains part, or all, of the four major elements, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, (C.H.O.N). It is an essential part of life to have these molecules or their would be no living creatures. Molecules, Atoms, and elements are all apart of the body and every creature needs them.
During the Organic Molecules experiment, four reagents were used to test for the presence of three of the four basic categories of Organic Molecules, carbohydrates, lips, and proteins, in control substances and Cheerios. For carbohydrates, I was testing, specifically, for the presence of reducing (polysaccharides) and non-reducing sugars (monosaccharides). Carbohydrates, both reducing and non-reducing, are important to the cell because they act as an energy source and are an important factor in building and the structure of important sugars like Ribose. Monosaccharides are important, specifically, because they are sources of nutrients to cells. An example of this would be glucose. (Campbell, 2014, 68) Non-reducing sugars, such as starch, serve as storage for cells and are hydrolyzed and broken down when sugars are needed for the cell. Some polysaccharides, such as cellulose, are used for structural purposes in cells. In plants, cellulose is
Carbohydrates are divided into two groups based on how complex their structure is.Monosaccharides is a simple carbohydrate because it has one simple sugar, disaccharides has a combination of two simple sugars.An example of disaccharides is lactose.Complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides are known to have multiple sugars.Polysaccharides are also used to store energy, an example of this starch.In addition, nutrients include proteins ,fats, minerals and vitamins.Multiple tests were taken like Benedict’s Solution, Lugol’s Solution, and Biuret’s Solution to test if the presence of a substance was there.
To obtain a positive result the starch must be heated with addition of a dilute hydrochloric acid (this process is called hydrolysis) breaking the glycosidic bond with acidic and heated conditions. This process renders the starch different than its original form, but it allows for the breakdown of the monosaccharaides (making up the starch) into aldehydes and alpha-hydroxy-ketones. These then react with Benedict’s reagent providing a positive result to the
Polysaccharides Polysaccharides are polymers composed of multiple subunits of monosaccharides (simple sugars). They are formed by condensation reaction, in the same way as disaccharides are formed, the difference stands in the larger number of monomer units which they are composed from . The number of monosacchardies composing the chain is variable, and there are two types of chains that can be formed: branched or unbranched. The chains may be folded, thus making them compact and therefore ideal for storage.
Carbohydrates make up the largest volume of daily food in the diet. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and dietary fiber. Carbohydrates are considered organic chemicals because they contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are considered a macronutrient because it needs to be consumed in large amounts in a diet which make up the majority of the diet in a day. Carbohydrates are important because they are the main source of calories for a healthy diet. How do carbohydrates affect sleep? Carbohydrates provide energy for physical activity, brain function, and operation of the organs. When carbohydrates are consumed, they are converted to fuel and used as energy. There are two types of carbohydrates known as simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are sugars that are made of one or two sugar molecules and are rapidly digested. Complex carbohydrates are dietary starches and made of sugar molecules that contain fiber. They are found in whole plant foods which are high in vitamin and minerals. The glycemic index is a “relative ranking on how they affect blood glucose levels.” (University of Sydney) Foods with a low glycemic index are more slowly digested, absorbed, and metabolize so the blood glucose rises more slowly. Foods with a high glycemic index are more quickly
The Structure and Function of Carbohydrates Large biological molecules are called macromolecules, there are giant molecules (polymers) made up of repeating units (monomers). Carbohydrates are one of the main classes of biological molecules. Macromolecule units (monomers) are joined together by condensation reactions and hydrolysis reactions split macromolecules down into their individual units. Carbohydrates are molecules that contain elements of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates have a 2:1 hydrogen to oxygen ratio, there are twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms (the same proportion as in water).
Complexity of compounds is the reason they must be absorbed long before the physical activity. Starch a main area of complex carbohydrates. It has several bonds. Starches are tightly bound carbon molecules and have several attaching elements. This bonding complexity is the reason starches are capable of retaining large amounts of energy. These compounds should be taken into an athlete's body prior to intense physical activity because an energy storage supply is necessary when simple compounds are completely oxidized.
The chemistry of carbohydrates most closely resembles that of alcohol, aldehyde, and ketone functional groups. As a result, the modern definition of a carbohydrate is that the compounds are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. The chemistry of carbohydrates is complicated by the fact that there is a functional group (alcohol) on almost every carbon. In addition, the carbohydrate may exist in either a straight chain or a ring structure. Ring structures incorporate two additional functional groups: the hemiacetal and acetal.