Chapter One
1.1. Sociolinguistics- dokonczyc I opracować
Sociolinguistics study the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics is a loose grouping of several related disciplines. It has been in existence for around forty years. As such, the field combines knowledge principally from two fields of study: linguistics and sociology.
principles of sociolinguistics ( Wardaugh and Bell) the cumulative principle - as much data as possible about languages in use must be collected the uniformation principle - the basic causes of language change, internal structural influences and external shifts in style, have not changed in recorded history diachronic linguistics - the study of the history of language snchronic linguistics - the study of the current state of language the principle of convergence - a variety of methods should be used to gather data; if these methods yield similar results, then the convergence provides stronger evidence to support a given hypothesis the principle of subordinate shift - speakers of subordinate varieties shift their language when questioned directly the principle of style-shifting - there are no single-style speakers the principle of attention - the more aware a person is her or his language, the more formal it will be the vernacular principle - the vernacular (non-standard, spoken norm) is the most regular the principle of formality - the "observer’s paradox" is that formal interview situations cause the speaker to modify his or her language
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1.2. Loanwords
Language is a system, which...
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... became a direct source as Czech became less influential (after its early role as a source of borrowing in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, German lost its influence until the nineteenth century). French and Italian started to play a role in the sixteenth century, yet Italian influence declined in the seventeenth century, while French remained important until the mid-nineteenth century. The sixteenth and seventeenth century also brought a numerous group of borrowings from Ukrainian and Belorussian and, through them or directly, from Turkic. In the nineteenth century Russian and English (the latter initially via French and German) appeared as a source languages, their influence became especially strong in the period following the World War Two. Currently, English is the major source of loanwords (Comrie 2002: 751). This process is illustrated in the Table 2
Finalize the final writes. Social context effects in what we write to say for example: Is it
Language has been said to effect culture and a person’s way of thinking; in addition to culture effecting language. Throughout the last 100 years there have been apparent and subtle changes in the English language. The changes an English speaking person may see throughout their life time are different catchphrases, the way language is written, the type of formality used, and how deeply English is affected by cultures; as well as how it effects other cultures around the world.
Knobe, Joshua. "Intentional Action and Side Effects in Ordinary Language." Oxford Journals 63.3 (2003): 190-94. JStor. Oxford University Press.
8. Watzlawick, P., Bavelas, J., & Jackson, D. (1967). Pragmatics of human communication. New York: Norton.
Style has been an integral component in the field of linguistics. Linguistic style refers to a person’s speaking pattern, which can include different features such as pace, pitch, intonation, syntactic patterns, etc. Styles of speech is learned, and is often influenced by location, gender, ethnicity, and age. As different cultures and sub-cultures arise, linguistic variations occur and different sociolinguistic styles come into being. Each style can index social meanings such as group membership, personal attributes or beliefs.
Language also changes easy whenever speakers come into contact with each other. No two individuals speak identically: people from different geographical places clearly speak differently, but even within the same small community there are variations according to a speaker’s age, gender, social and educational background. Through our interactions with these different
Languages are continually changing and developing, and these changes occur in many different ways and for a variety of reasons. Language change is detectable to some extent in all languages, and ‘similar paths of change’ can be recognised in numerous unrelated languages (Bybee, 2015, p. 139). Since users of language all over the world have ‘the same mental processes’ and ‘use communication for the same or very similar ends’ (Bybee, 2015, p. 1), similar changes occur on the same linguistic aspects, and in many cases these changes produce similar results in multiple languages. However, language change is limited by the function it performs. Languages must be learnt to such an extent which allows communication between the generation above and below one’s own (McMahon, 1994, p. 5). Hence language change is a gradual, lethargic process, as only small changes in
Pragmatics Aspects: Deixis and Distance, reference and inference, conversational implicature, anaphoric and cataphoric reference, presupposition, entailment, direct and indirect speech acts and speech events, cultural context and cross cultural pragmatics, conversational analysis and background knowledge, denotation and connotation meaning, the four maxims and hedges.
Have you ever wondered who taught you to talk the way you do? People learn to talk and express themselves everyday of their lives. Starting from the day you were born you used language or some form of it to communicate with those around you. As a baby you usually show your displeasure with your new surroundings by crying, and if you don’t the doctor will make sure you do. Everyday we express our point of view to others in some form of language. Whether it is through verbal communication, written discourse or through body language, you can tell if a person is upset, angry, or happy. We as human beings don’t realize how much language has to do with our lives. How can you determine if one of your friends is angry with you? Is there a different tone to their voice? Do they have a stern look on their face? Of course they do, your friend feels the need to express their anger to you by these different forms of language. Where do we learn to use these different forms of language? How are our uses of these languages shaped? The three main contributing factors to how we express ourselves through language come from our schooling, our friends, and most of all from our families.
One of the most fascinating sociolinguistic phenomena in modern times is code-switching. This act occurs when a speaker or speakers switch from one dialect to another within a single conversation. It is similar to style-shifting, which involves a change in the level of formality between speakers. (Curzan, 266-269) The complexity of social interaction requires language users to adapt to changing needs in conversation. Typical and atypical shifts in language usage are evident in daily life. A conversation between two coworkers might be drastically different from a conversation between a manager and a supervisor. A conversation between friends who share the same two languages will likely vary from a conversation between two monolingual friends. And a letter to someone who lives only a short distance away will probably be dissimilar from a letter written to someone in a different region, country, or continent from the writer.
Among the major social determinants of linguistic variation, gender is widely considered to be one of the most significant ones. According to research on a range of linguistic features, gender may even be the dominant factor.
The book An Intorduction of Sociolinguistics is an outstanding introductary book in the field of sociolinguistics. It encompasses a wide range of language issues. In chapter 13, Wardhaugh provides a good insight to the relationship between language and gender. He explains gender differences of language-in-use with concise examples. Wardhaugh riases questions about sexist language and guides readers to look closer at how people use language differently because of their own gender in daily life. According to the Whorfian hypothesis, which indicates that the way people use language reflects their thoughts, different genders adapt different communication strategies.
Miller, T. P, & Faigley, L. (1982). College English. National Council of teachers of English, 44(6). Retrieved from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0010-
Another theory is Vygotsky’s (1978) theory. In his theory which is called the sociocultural theory, it is believed that language learning is a social activity and is mediated by language. He believes that learning occurs when an expert of the language assists the learner by using language and
varieties form. Varieties are formed when differences are found within the same kind of thing. This is the reason why we have both British and American English. Believe it or not// the differences that we have in the English language started a long time ago.