Introduction
International negotiations may comprise a number of different channels during a peace process. Negotiations between states may take place in public front channels or they may be veiled to maintain secrecy of the bargaining process. This essay will look at the later and examine whether the beneficial effects of secret diplomacy can also yield negative consequences. This essay will be divided into three sections. The first section will define secret diplomacy, referred to as back channel diplomacy (BCD), and outline some of its characteristics. The discussion will outline why parties use BCD and convey the benefits and disadvantages. The second section will outline the function of BCD in two negotiation case studies. The first will look at Israel and Palestinian negotiations leading up to the Oslo Accords in 1993. The second case study will examine British negotiations with the IRA and Sinn Fein in Northern Ireland leading up to the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. The third and final section will evaluate the use of BCD in both cases and convey some lessons for policymakers. This essay argues that whilst BCD can be helpful in facilitating a peace process, it can be damaging if it is not managed with front channel diplomacy (FCD).
What is Back Channel Diplomacy?
Secret diplomacy, also known as ‘back channel diplomacy’ (BCD) refers to ‘official negotiations conducted in secret among the parties to a dispute or even between a party and a third party intervenor, which may complement front channels, and are potentially at variance with declared policies’ . Wanis-St. John has also described them as the ‘black markets’ of negotiation. This is because they provide a separate negotiation space away from public diplomat...
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...ic Use of Multiple channels of Negotiation in Middle East Peacemaking’, 2001, A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of The Fletcher School Of Law And Diplomacy Tufts University, viewed at http://repository01.lib.tufts.edu:8080/fedora/get/tufts:UA015.012.DO.00003/bdef:TuftsPDF/getPDF on 10 April 2012 .
• Wanis-St. John, Anthony, Back Channel Negotiation: Secrecy in the Middle East Peace Process, Syracuse, 2011, chapter 1, pp. 1-22.
• Wanis-St. John, Anthony, 'Back-Channel Negotiation: International Bargaining in the Shadows', Negotiation Journal, April 2006, pp.119-144, at http://www.aupeace.org/files/Wanis_BackChannelNegotiation.pdf .
• Wanis-St. John, Anthony, 'Peace Processes, Secret Negotiations and Civil Society: Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion', International Negotiation, 13 (2008) 1–9, at http://www.aupeace.org/files/Wanis,%20Intro%20JIN%2013.1.pdf .
In this essay, the author
- Argues that secret diplomacy can be beneficial in facilitating a peace process, but it can also be damaging if it isn't managed.
- Argues that bcd encourages flexibility and frank discussions, provides political cover, and allows parties to overcome hurdles if disputants remain in conflict.
- Explains that israel and the plo have used bcd with limited fcd to address interim issues and permanent status negotiations.
- Explains that secret dialogue enabled israel to avoid recognizing the plo, but in practical terms both parties found it difficult to implement a settlement.
- Explains that the initial use of secret back channels laid a foundation of limited trust and increased mutual understanding in northern ireland.
- Argues that secret negotiations can facilitate early breakthrough agreements, and that over-reliance on bcd can yield diminishing returns.
- Concludes that bcd can yield beneficial effects as well as negative consequence, and that secret negotiations and front channels must be strategically used if parties are to make the transition to peace and coexistence.
- Explains carcasson, martn, 'unveiling the oslo narrative: the rhetorical transformation of israeli-palestinian diplomacy'.
- Explains the irish department of foreign affairs and trade's good friday agreement, which was viewed on 17 april 2012.
- Cites the israel ministry of foreign affairs, 'agreement on the gaza strip and jericho area', may 4, 1994.
- Cites the israel ministry of foreign affairs, ‘declaration of principles on interim self-government arrangements’, september 13, 1993, at http://www.mfa.gov.
- States that israel ministry of foreign affairs, 'main points of the agreement on the preparatory transfer of powers and responsibilities', august 29, 1994.
- Explains kriesberg, louis, 'mediation and the transformation of the israeli-palestinian conflict', journal of peace research, 2001 38: 373.
- Explains lieberfeld, daniel, 'secrecy and "two-level games" in the oslo accord: what the primary sources tell us', in international negotiation.
- Explains that ’dochartaigh, niall, 'together in the middle: back-channel negotiation in the irish peace process', journal of peace research, 2011 48: 767.
- Explains pruitt, dean g., 'back-channel communication in the settlement of conflict', international negotiation 13 (2008) 37–54.
- Explains pruitt, dean g., 'readiness theory and the northern ireland conflict', american behavioral scientist, 2007 50: 1520.
- Explains wanis-st. john's thesis, back channel diplomacy : the strategic use of multiple channels of negotiation in middle east peacemaking.
- Explains wanis-st. john, anthony, back channel negotiation: secrecy in the middle east peace process, syracuse, 2011.
- Explains wanis-st. john, anthony, 'back-channel negotiation: international bargaining in the shadows'.
- Explains wanis-st. john, anthony, peace processes, secret negotiations and civil society: dynamics of inclusion and exclusion.
- Explains that secret diplomacy, also known as ‘back channel diplomacies’, provides a separate negotiation space away from public diplomatic channels, and allows parties to seek alternative arrangements.
- Explains how the israeli-palestinian conflict dates back to 1948 after the british mandate to form israel left the arab palestinians without a homeland.
- Explains how the power discrepancy in which the protestant majority dominated the catholic minority led to tension and conflict.
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- The Five Stages of the Negotiation Process in Diplomacyexplanatory essayDiplomacy has a variety of definitions which depending on the user perspectives on the term “diplomacy”. In the context of international relations, diplomacy is the negotiator’s ability in conducting negotiations between the representatives of nation states in a peaceful manner. The essential of negotiation is to resolve a conflict without offending others. According to Iragorri (2003), an effective negotiation is being able to achieve mutual agreement by peaceful means. The process of a negotiation in diplomacy goes through five important stages that is preparation, discussion, proposing, bargaining and settling process (refer to Figure 1 in Appendix 1).
In this essay, the author
- Explains that diplomacy is the negotiator's ability in conducting negotiations between the representatives of nation states in a peaceful manner.
- Explains that the first stage of the negotiation is preparation, which includes the outlining of both sides negotiator interests for the purpose of identifying common interests among them.
- Explains that the second stage of the discussion process is to exchange information. both sides of negotiator will come into consensus upon making known the information regarding the matter discussed.
- Explains that the third stage of proposing is to gain either positive or negative feedback from the opposition regarding the presented proposal.
- Explains that the fourth stage is the bargaining process, which ensures the negotiation process runs smoothly. bargaining skill is an important skill that will help the process of a negotiation to be favoured by the negotiator side.
- Explains the five stages of the negotiation process in diplomacy that begin with preparation, discussion, proposing, bargaining and end with settling process.
- Explains that lewicki, r. j., saunders, d. m. & barry, b.
1075 wordsRead More - Robust Routers Job Offer Negotiationopinionated essayLewicki, J. R., Barry, B., & Saunders, M. D. (2011). Essentials of negotiation (5th ed.). New
In this essay, the author
- Describes how they played the roles of the human resource director, leigh bultema, and their partner, joe tech, a recent mba graduate seeking permanent employment with the technology company.
- Explains that joe and leigh's negotiation had distributive bargaining elements, but their relationship and the outcome of the negotiation were important to both parties.
- Opines that joe tech agreed to a job offer at robust routers, which included $95,000 annual salary, 1,000 stock options, 500 incentive options and $5,000 signing bonus.
- Explains that the terms of the agreement do not differ significantly from the company’s target goals.
- Explains that joe's response to robust routers' request for employment was not different because he was unprepared to negotiate. the negotiation was non-eventful, and joe easily agreed to the terms of the agreement, including relocation.
- Explains that they won the negotiation because the settlement was better than their resistance point and it encouraged longevity with the company.
- Analyzes how the negotiations between leigh and joe were quickly settled because joe realized this job offer was his best chance at pursuing a career in business development.
- Explains lewicki, barry, & saunders, m. d., essentials of negotiation, 5th ed.
- Opines that lewicki, barry, and saunders, m. d. (2010), negotiation: reading, exercises and cases.
- Explains that distributive bargaining consists of two parties in competition to maximize their share of a limited resource. they set their resistance point at $105,000 to allow for some flexibility.
- Explains that joe tech accepted robust router's internship offer because of his inexperience and education from a lower-rank mba program.
1193 wordsRead More - negotiation in cross culturesargumentative essayNegotiations always occur between parties who believe that some benefit may come of purposeful discussion. The parties to a negotiation usually share an intention to reach an agreement. This is the touchstone to which any thinking of negotiations must refer. While there may be some reason to view negotiations as attempts by each party to get the better of the other, this particular type of adversarial negotiation is really just one of the options available. Among the beginning principles of a negotiation must be an acknowledgment that the parties to a negotiation have both individual and group interests that are partially shared and partially in conflict, though the parameters and proportions of these agreements and disagreements will never be thoroughly known; this acknowledgment identifies both the reason and the essential subject matter for reflection on a wide range of issues relevant to a negotiation. (Gregory Tropea, November 1996)
In this essay, the author
- Explains that to analyze the problem we have to study the american and japanese negotiation styles and how culture in its different meanings affects negotiations.
- Analyzes how the american negotiation style is underemphasized in law and business school classrooms, where competition and winning are essential themes of socialization.
- Explains that americans choose the manager with knowledge and decision-making power regardless of experience and age, while japanese choose older and more mature managers.
- Explains that americans usually have little or limited time to offer due to other engagements and tight schedules. time for japanese doesn't mean much as long as the negotiation is on track.
- Explains integrative and distributive strategies are equally practiced in both cultures, but in japan people negotiate for the benefit of all.
- Explains that japanese believe that the most important source of power is to be prepared. having information available and ready to exchange is crucial.
- Explains hodgson, james day, yoshihiro sano, and john l. graham, doing business with the new japan, 2000.
- Explains kato, hiroki and joan, understanding and working with the japanese business world, new jersey, prentice hall, business information & publishing division.
- Explains that america has been influenced by its immigrants, who came across the seas with a mix of ideas and perspectives. they had to work hard to succeed, but also wanted to be independent.
- Explains that good preparation, clear and plain speaking, focus on pragmatism over doctrine, strong ability to recognize the other party’s perspective, and recognize that negotiations do not have to be win-lose.
- Explains that doing business in japan is difficult, but everyone was incredibly friendly when they visited japan.
- Explains that there is no other advanced industrial country with so little foreign investment because for a long time foreign investors have been kept out.
- Cautions against reading books claiming to prepare you for japanese etiquette. don't make the mistake of believing that you are well-prepared to do business in japan after reading a book about 'quot;japanese
- Explains how seating is arranged at meetings, at dinners, or in cars. the seating protocol depends on seniority, guest-host relationship, the position of the door, decorations in the room, etc.
- Explains that there are unwritten rules in daily life in japan, which everybody observes, but nobody talks about, and which don't exist in europe or usa.
- Explains the importance of acknowledging that parties to a negotiation have both individual and group interests that are partially shared and partially in conflict.
- Explains that japan's negotiation style is unique because of its insular and mountainous geography, dense population, and importance of rice as the basic food crop.
- Compares how americans view negotiations as a competition while japanese view it as an opportunity to exchange information.
- Compares the japanese's approach to negotiating with those of the american counterparts.
- Suggests that a negotiator should adapt to the culture and language of the other party's approach.
- Explains that there is no particular'solution' to any of the problems; learning is in the experience of problems and integration of that experience into one's inherent negotiating strengths and weaknesses.
- Cites lewicki, roy j., david m. saunders, and john w. minton, negotiation, 1999, 3rd edition, mcgraw-hill higher education. schmidt, warren h. and robert tannenbaum, 2000, “management of differences.”
- Argues that the united states and japan's negotiations on five different subjects would have been expected to have the same outcomes but they had all different outcomes.
- Opines that the old zaibatsu structure is gradually breaking down.
- Recommends taking enough professionally prepared'meishi' (business cards) and bringing documentation of your company in japanese language.
- Cautions against throwing objects at people asking them to catch. books, papers, documents, meishi, presents, and other important objects are given with both hands and a bow of the head.
- Explains how a us-japan negotiation is scheduled in hawaii. the japanese and us negotiators prepare well for the negotiation.
3498 wordsRead More - The Role Of Patriarchy By Hazel Carbyanalytical essayNegotiations and back-room dealings happen in any possible setting at any possible moment. Regardless of whether a bargain is two people negotiating a business deal, eighty people silently weighing the pros and cons of drawing attention to themselves, or one single person unconsciously deciding to give up individuality to wrest some semblance of power from the system, a choice is being made between various options.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that negotiations and back-room dealings happen at any possible moment. whether it is two people negotiating a business deal, eighty people silently weighing the pros and cons of drawing attention to themselves, or one single person unconsciously deciding to give up individuality to wrest some semblance of power from the system.
- Explains that everyone has to negotiate with patriarchy, a facet of society promoting "being male dominated, male identified, and male-centered."
- Analyzes judith bennett's understanding of a patriarchal bargain, which involves women giving into gender rules and patriarcy in order to gain modicum of power in male-privileged world.
- Analyzes how hazel carby's notion of patriarchy includes, as it should, race as a main player in patriarcal control. black manhood could not be achieved or maintained, since male privilege is reserved only for white men.
- Argues that the divide between the two authors' opinions and between race and social class form the ability to play into the patriarchal world.
- Argues that education enters as one of the more forgiving patriarchal bargains to discuss, despite bennett arguing that "women are gaining access to institutions only when those institutions are in decline."
- Analyzes how hazel carby and judith bennett view women as unable to form a class, but have varying views on intersectionality.
818 wordsRead More - Essay On Camp David Negotiationargumentative essayMany disagreements would arise in the negotiation process of the Camp David 2000 Summit that would eventually lead it to be unsuccessful. Disagreements such as the division of territory, the dispute over Jerusalem, Security and Refugee arrangements arose in the negotiation. Unfortunately this paper cannot explain all of the disagreement, it will mention some.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that bill clinton proposed the "clinton parameters" on the 23rd of december 2000. the parameters were drawn up by israeli-palestinian envoy dennis ross.
- Proposes a palestinian state comprising between 94-96% of the west bank and the entire gaza strip, land swap of 1-3% from israel to palestinian, contiguity, and minimizing the number of palestinians affected.
- Analyzes how the parameters did not cover all of the issues that led to the failure of camp david 2000 summit.
- Explains that many disagreements would arise in the negotiation process of the camp david 2000 summit that eventually led it to be unsuccessful.
1094 wordsRead More - Gettingargumentative essayIn the Overview Section of the book titled “Breaking Through the Barriers”, Ury defines negotiation as “the process of back-and-forth communication aimed at reaching an agreement with others”. (p.4) He brings to our attention the negotiations we face each day. While I was reading the book, I thought about situations that I find myself negotiating with others.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that preparation is the key to every negotiation and creates the foundation for your argument.
- Explains ury's lesson of "step to their side": when faced with hostility and closed ears, the best strategy is to step to their side.
- Explains ury's "don't escalate: use power to educate" as the final step in the negotiation process.
- Analyzes how william ury's book getting past no breaks down the negotiation process into five basic steps called breakthrough negotiation.
- Explains ury's first step to a successful negotiation is to "don't react: go to the balcony".
- Explains how ury uses the example of the great home-run hitter, sadahara oh, using each pitch as an opportunity and the pitcher as his partner in the game.
- Explains how to use a batna without carrying it out, such as involving an attorney if you are going to court.
- Recommends william ury's book getting past no: negotiating difficult situations to anyone in high school or older.
2353 wordsRead More - Stephen Stedman's Peacemakinganalytical essayAccording to Stedman’s (1997) influential research “Peacemaking is a risky business and the greatest source of risk comes from spoilers leaders and parties”.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how stedman focuses on the roles which groups or individuals searching to hinder peace building progressions. he concludes that spoilers occur after there's an ongoing peace to spoil.
- Explains that the spoiler research concept set ahead two main policy implications for the united nations negotiation in civil wars.
526 wordsRead More - Third Party Conflict Resolution – Sick Leaveexplanatory essayLewicki, R. J., Saunders, D. M., & Barry, B. (2005). Negotiation, Fifth Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that kelly was hired by soto board of education in japan. she worked with the japan exchange and teaching program (jet) and conference of local authorities for international relations (clair).
- Describes how kelly was hired as an assistant language teacher and worked three days a week in the board of education office and two days helping with the english program.
- Narrates how kelly's boss, mr. higashi, told her she needed to bring a note from the doctor when she returned to work. she took vacation time instead of sick leave since that was the custom in japan’s workforce.
- Explains that mcs (means-control strategy) involves influencing the process of resolution but not imposing a resolution. the final decision is left to the disputants.
- Explains that manager intervenes in the dispute by influencing the outcome, decides what the final decision will be, imposes the resolution on the disputants, but does not attempt to influence the process.
- Explains that managers don't intervene actively in resolving disputes; they either urge the parties to settle the dispute on their own or stay away from it; low on both process and outcome control.
- Explains that manager intervenes in the dispute by influencing the process and outcome. he or she asks the disputants specific questions to obtain information and imposes a resolution.
- Explains how managers share control over the process and outcome of disputes with disputants. they also take an active role in evaluating options, recommending solutions, persuading them to accept solutions.
- Explains that the ends-control strategy (ecs) is the best intervention strategy to resolve the conflict involving whether kelly’s sick leave or vacation leave should be used.
- Analyzes how kelly's interpretation of the contract and the actions surrounding the time when she was ill indicated to kelly that she had used sick leave.
- Explains that mr. higashi received a call from kelly in regard to her illness and advised her to go to the doctor, but that was the fatherly advice he freely gave on all issues and problems.
- Opines that ecs should resolve the conflict because each party will be allowed to state their side of the problem. the manager from clair will settle the dispute armed with the contract and information from kelly and mr. higashi.
- Explains that if ecs isn't a chosen intervention strategy, the second best intervention is part control strategy (pcs), where the manager shares both controls over the process and the outcome with both parties.
- Opines that pcs is a secondary option to ecs because contracts signed by kelly will weigh heavily in this situation.
- Explains that the comprising strategy would be used as the best alternative if the first strategy failed.
1445 wordsRead More - Midwestern Contemporary Art Case Studyopinionated essayMany situations present the important synchronization of internal versus external negotiations. Many individuals have studied how each side in the negotiation is able to manage the internal opposition to agreements being negotiated. This can also be known as “on the table”, or what exactly is on the line in a heated argument. Each individual involve in an argument has a particular position to be managed, and often times own personal interests are widely expressed. This paper will expand upon the case of Fischer collecting needed funds from Smith with proposals and ideas for a manageable negotiation.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how each side in the negotiation is able to manage the internal opposition to agreements being negotiated. each individual involved in an argument has a particular position to be managed.
- Explains that the midwestern contemporary art case study revolves around the current mca board chair peggy fischer, and former board chair peter smith. smith and his wife were highly recognized by the community and aimed to stay out of the spotlight whenever possible.
- Opines that mrs. fischer's personal interests are a matter of whether or not employment at the museum will occur in the future.
- Opines that the museum and fischer have the upper hand in terms of who has the power. had it not been for mr. and mrs. smith signing a pledge paper that funds would be awarded to the museum, they would have no agreement.
- Opines that peggy fisher should have all the confidence in the world that she will have no problem winning the argument. saving her personal image through not pressing action against the smiths is achievable with simple negotiating.
- Explains that negotiations are part of everyday lives and in the case of smith and fischer an initial bargain agreement was established. batna is the best outcome that can be achieved without the other individual refusing to cooperate.
- Explains that harvard recommends the invention or generation of options for mutual agreements. the process of identifying and dovetailing interests provides an opportunity for options of mutual gain and value creation.
- Analyzes how mrs. fisher can use the tactic of scaring the other party into taking a side in the case of the smiths.
- Opines that having a good batna would increase fischer's negotiating power. she has an alternative even though she is not favoring the fact that legal action may be taken against the couple.
1249 wordsRead More - Will There Be Peace in the Middle Eastanalytical essayAndersen, Roy, Robert F. Seibert, and Jon G. Wagner. Politics and change in the Middle East: sources of conflict and accommodation. 9th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982. Print.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that greed is a major contributor to the on-going conflict in the middle east.
- Explains that the middle east is comprised of followers of islam, but the sunni and shia are the main sources of conflict. the jewish population in israel and palestinians want to reclaim their land.
- Analyzes how charles maynes in "the middle east in the twenty-first century" addresses the future by examining the region demographically and technologically.
- Analyzes how maynes addresses the limited amount of resources in the middle east, and their contributions to the on-going violence.
- Analyzes reinoud leenders' article, "regional conflict formations: is the middle east next?", which focuses on the inta-state conflicts of lebanon, syria, and iraq.
- Opines that peace is not a likely outcome for the middle east unless serious changes take place (politically, environmentally, etc.).
- Explains that andersen, roy, robert f. seibert, and jon g. wagner. politics and change in the middle east: sources of conflict and accommodation.
- Analyzes leenders, reinoud, "regional conflict formations': is the middle east next?" in third world quarterly.
- Explains maynes, charles, and the middle east in the twenty-first century.
- Explains that srli, mirjam, nils gleditsch, and hvard strand, "why is there so much conflict in the middle east?" the journal of conflict resolution.
- Analyzes the sources of conflict in the middle east, including the lack of natural resources, leadership styles, and religious strife.
1447 wordsRead More