Eritrea and South Sudan Post-Secession: Challenges, Prospects and Successes 1. Introduction Secessionist rebel movements ravaged African states in the 1980s and 1990s. Most of the secessionist movements grew out of the divide and rule system of the colonial era. Eritrea and South Sudan have been colonized, but the secessionist movements further grew out of ‘sustained grievances’ over the violation of human rights, unequal distribution of political power, and marginalization from social and economic development as well as cultural suppression. In spite of various failed attempts of secession in many African countries, Eritrea and South Sudan were successful in getting independence, with international and regional actors’ recognition. But the question remains whether these countries are on the right track to address the main challenges that emerge in the aftermath of secession, in the process of peacebuilding and state building in particular with issues of human rights, political stability and development for their people who voted for secession during referendums. The internal and external contexts in which both countries seceded could be to a certain extent different, yet both seem to share challenges in post-secession peacebuilding and state building. As such, this paper aims to examine the challenges, successes and prospects for peacebuilding and democratization in each country. 2. Background to the secession of South Sudan and Eritrea Eritrea was part of Ethiopian history since the first century A.D. it was one major part of the Axumite and Abyssinian rulers of Ethiopia. Historical and anthropological studies show that Eritrea was part of Ethiopia’s genealogy until the 1890 Italian invasion.1 Eritrea fall under Italian c... ... middle of paper ... ...egic goal has contributed to the lose relation between the movement and the whole community. 4 The Comprehensive Peace Agreement brought the war for independence to an end in 2005. The agreement set power sharing and economic development plan to be implemented with a promise of respecting the right to self-determination when and if the ‘trial’ period did not bring the intended peace and shared vision in Sudan. With the death of SPLM’s leader John Gerang in 2005 who was the main advocate for united Sudan, South Sudan’s interest has declined and with the lack of commitment from the government of Sudan to the issues agreed under the CPA secession was seen as the only option. The stagnant political stand of the government deterred any chance of the South to envision a unified Sudanese state. South Sudan gained its independence in 2011 after a nationwide referendum.
For the purpose of this article, the neighbouring countries of Rwanda and Uganda in East Africa have been chosen as case-studies. Both countries experienced different European imperialist influences as well as different decolonisation processes. Moreover, in post-independence both countries developed a saliency of indelible conflict. Conflict in both Rwanda and Uganda was not only an outcome of colonial legacies, but was also a consequence of historical circumstances and opportunistic power struggles. For this reason, this article will briefly examine the pre-colonial history of both Rwanda and Uganda, respectively. Subsequently, the dynamics of imperialism will be explored in Rwanda under Belgian ...
Revolutionary state formation entails the process of intense and violent struggle between an indigenous population and a colonial power, or between factions or sub-state entities leading to the establishment of one or more states (Maoz). The duration of the struggle and violence is typically short in duration and a result of the pressures felt from both domestic and international pressures. At the beginning of the formation of a new state of regime, acceptance is not guaranteed into the club of nations. The relevance of this fact is that the newly established regime needs to have solid grounds for validation and self-autonomy, without it is left unstable and liable to be brought down by old neighboring states. During the period of instability following the formation of a new regime, there is the additional internal threat which means that those who were in power before will be looking for the first opportunity to return to the status qou (Maoz). An additional aspect of the revolutionary state fo...
The history of Eritrea is tied to its location on the Red Sea. Throughout history, especially since the opening of the Suez Canal, Eritrea has been invaded numerous times because of its strategic location on the Red Sea and because of its mineral resources. After the opening of the Suez Canal, many European powers raced to gain territory along the African Red Sea and Indian Ocean coastlines in order to establish ports for their trade routes. Italy officially colonized Eritrea in 1890 and along with Ethiopia and Somalia became known as the Italian East Africa. During World War II, the British expelled the Italians from Africa through the Battle of Keren, and in 1951, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, which eventually led to its annexation as an Ethiopian province in 1952. Following a 30-year war, Eritrea gained independence and international recognition in 1993.
When Abraham Lincoln spoke at his inauguration on March 1861, the nation’s mood was grim. It was a frigid day and the sky was grey. Even worse, nobody knew how the newly-elected President, a novice lawyer, would handle the nation’s biggest problem since its inception: Southern secession. The U.S., and its grandeur and resplendence were at stake and were now reduced to nothing more than the preposterous “Disunited States of America.” Americans were in a state of perplexity, and one question remained etched in the minds of Americans: “Did the South have a legal right to secede from the Union?” No, the South did not have a legal right to secede from the Union, due to the longevity of the Union, the solidarity between the states, and the menacing implications secession entails.
In the years leading up to the Civil War, there was great conflict throughout the United States. The North and South had come to a crossroads at which there was no turning back. The Secession Crisis is what ultimately led to the Civil War. The North and the South disagreed on slavery and what states would be free states. The South despised Lincoln 's election and rose up in revolt by forming the Confederate States of America. Both the North and the South were responsible for the crisis, but the election of Lincoln had the most impact. All of these factors are what began the war in which brother fought brother.
Muluneh, Wuhib Ethiopia - Eritrea Border Conflict: The Crux of the Issue, accessed on 11/28/2003, < http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/articles/articles/focus%20electronic-99/Wuhib%20M-3.htm >
The Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005 states, “The conflict in the Sudan is the longest running conflict in Africa… it has caused tragic loss of life, destroyed the infrastructure of the country, eroded its economic resources and caused suffering to the people of the Sudan” (“Sudan” Insight). Sudan faced the challenge of overcoming the ethnic division between Northern Sudan’s Arab heritage and Southern Sudan’s African heritage. Southern Sudan was isolated from the Northern region, which prevented Sudan from fully participating in the country's political, economic, and social life. This separation resulted in ethnic tension and caused racial clashes and dependence between the two groups. The turmoil and troubles in Sudan today began with a heavy Anglo- Egyptian influence on ancient-Sudan.
Ethiopia is one of the most unique among African countries for maintaining its freedom from colonial rule, with the short exception of an occupation by the Italians from 1936-1941. A socialist state was established in 1974 with the overthrow of Emperor Selassie, who had been in control since 1930. A junta or group of military officers called the Derg was responsible for the coup. Yet, this corrupt administration has lead only to warfare and wide scale public suffering. In 1991, the junta was finally brought down by a combination of revolutionary forces who called themselves the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front. In 1994, a constitution was drafted and 1995 marked Ethiopia’s first multiparty elections. Recently, a boarder feud with Eritrea, that lasted over 2 years, was ended in December of 2000; yet recent objections by Ethiopia have delayed a final declaration of border.
According to Seid (2009), up until the 1970’s the conflict between the Ethiopians and the Somalis in the Ogaden region was based mostly on religion. The Ethiopian military has a more Christian view while the Somalis have more of an Islamic view. However, from the 1970s up to today, the desire for nationalism of the Ogaden population has played a main role in the conflict, even though religion is still intertwined in the conflict. The Somalis of the Ogaden region and the Ethiopians both have a we versus them mentality. The Somalis do not recognize the power of the Ethiopians versus the Ethiopians view of the Somalis as being foreigner in their country.
In 1956 Sudan gained independence from the ruling of Britain, since the two civil wars have been experienced. The Addis Ababa peace agreement was signed by General Nimeiri due to the Anyanya war which was fought till 1972. The peace agreement signed was that the South has autonomy, however this came to a halt when North Sudan imposed the Islamic values onto an already diverse land, which led to the South Sudan to retaliation . Colonel John Garang of Sudan’s’ army established the SPLA/M (Sudan People’s Liberation Army/Movement) in 1980. Salva Kiir was part of the SLPA and later became Garangs’ chief of staff. In 2005, Sudan’s president Al-Bashir appointed John Garang to be the first vice president of Sudan, he therefore became the first Christian southerner to be in a high place of authority. Garang supported peace talks between north and south so to become one country but Kiir was for independence. In 2005 Kiir took leadership of SPLM after the death of Colonel John Garang and then became the vice president of Sudan . Kiir saw this as an opportunity to bring about an end to the suffering and discrimination endured the southerners since 1953 .
... and trying to make them cooperate was the biggest flaw of the British colonialism. Then when that didn’t work out, the British developed the North far more than the South, thus creating resentment in the South. With the end of colonialism the British left a nation that was unstable politically and culturally. The region, culture, language, and historical differences between the South and North leads to two civil wars for independence. Which further leads into an ethnic conflict in South Sudan. If no action is taken to bring peace between the two. There is a threat of those ethnicity fighting over resources, which could then potentially lead into a territorial conflict. And if South Sudan further divides there could be a possibility of a power vacuum happening, creating more chaos. All it takes is a single spark to trigger a series of unfortunate events.
Ever since the boundaries of Africa were drawn up in 1884/5, very little has changed in terms of the continent's territorial divisions. Much has been made of the fact that the post-colonial states which constitute Africa were the products of colonial demarcations, and whose territories are not congruent to existing political and ethnic organizations. Ethnic conflict within states is an unfortunate feature of several African states, and one which undoubtedly retards development of any kind. There has been debate surrounding the nature of African ethnicities and whether they were synt...
The question this research will address is why are states failing? Further, do failed states cause internal conflict? This question has extreme importance because of the implications this conflict has for not only its own civilians, but of those around it. Conflicts can cause a multitude of human rights violations, as well as displaced populations resulting in refugees, and overall tension in the region. Understanding the answer to this question helps policymakers make more informed decisions surrounding failed states in order to protect themselves and those within the failed state.
The Somalian Civil war is a war that began in 1991, in order to understand how the war is affecting the people of this country; we must first understand how this war came to be. In the time span between 1986 and 1991, the fall of the Barre regime commenced. In 1986, the ruler of the socialist government of Somalia, Barre was involved in a car accident that left him unable to lead the country; which left the vice president in charge of Somalia. Barre was up for election soon and in order to maintain his power, his supreme revolutionary council became authoritarian and pushed the limits of their power which then caused the people to become unruly to the increase in power. The year before the overthrow of the government, the newly appointed president and 100 other politicians signed a manifesto advocating reconciliation. In January 1991, Barre’s regime was overthrown by rebels protesting Barre’s increasing power and the abuse that he was imploding all over the country by bombing areas of rebels. After the fall of the government in 1991, many groups that tried to help take it down sta...
The purpose of peace building is to create conditions for a stable and lasting peace and to prevent the recurrence of large-scale violence in a post-civil war environment. Roland Paris's thesis in At War's End is effectively his claim that the Institutionalization Before Liberalization (IBL) strategy is the only effective way to support a society coming out of civil war, so as to avoid the destabilizing effects of liberalization, and that certain conditions are critical to its success. These particular conditions, as summarized by Paris, include a large, and often invasive, international presence, a long term commitment with no fixed end date or rush to an exit strategy, and large amounts of resources. However, while these terms for long lasting peace appear to be sound, they have not always been successful , or implemented as such, and in fact have essentially been counterproductive in some cases. Paris's approach has not always and may not always produce long-term sustainable peace with functioning institutions of democracy and the economy, because of dilemmas inherent in the approach. Though it is observed that most stable and peaceful states are democracies with productive economies, implementing the IBL strategy requires fine tuning and specific adjustments for every post-civil war state on a case by case basis.