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Microbiology prokaryotic cell
Literature review on antibiotics resistance
The challenge of antibiotic resistance
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Recommended: Microbiology prokaryotic cell
Title:
Research Question:
Can modifying the genetic material of bacteria create new characteristics through gene transfer?
Introduction:
Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus and no internal membrane. Because of this, they can be classified as bacteria. Prokaryotic cells are similar in structure to Eukaryotic cells, however the DNA floats in a nucleoid. Transformed bacteria consist of a recombinant plasmid and a host cell or bacteria. If the plasmid in the bacteria has a gene that is useful it can be very beneficial to the bacteria. Scientists can combine new DNA that they want replicated with the plasmid, so they can have large amounts of it. The bacteria may pass on the plasmid onto another bacteria, creating many lawns or colonies, which is called bacterial transformation.
A plasmid is a small circular piece of double-stranded DNA. The plasmid DNA contains a gene, which is shown by the bacterium. Scientists can modify plasmids, and create new genes. This shows that bacteria can acquire new genetic information and characteristics. In bacteria with the presence of plasmid in transformed bacterial cells, ampicillin and other antibiotics cannot destroy its cell wall, usually by using the chemical Beta-lactam ring. The ampicillin resistance gene in a plasmid encodes for a protein called Beta-lactamase, which is an enzyme that destroys the activity of ampicillin by breaking down the beta-lactam ring. These transformed bacterial cells can resist the effects of beta-lactam antibiotics. Plasmids are
Even though the DNA is free-floating, if a gene is important, the DNA can be coded.
Independent Variable: The plasmid
Dependent Variable: The type of growth of bacteria in each dish
Controlled Variables: The amount of plasmid added to +...
... middle of paper ...
...mpicillin, x-gal and +plasmid. Figure 3 shows columns of yellow bacterial growth when LB and +plasmid are present. Figure 4 shows lawns of yellow bacterial growth when LB and –plasmid is present. Figure 5 shows no signs of bacterial growth with x-gal, ampicillin, LB and –plasmid. Figure 6 shows a small lawn on yellow bacterial growth with ampicillin, LB and –plasmid.
Conclusion
Evaluation
Lb+amp+x-gal
Bacteria and plasmid some of the bacteria picked up the plasmid so it is transformed
x-gal turns cell blue, and the cell makes a colony
next to the blue colonies there are smaller white colonies
These bacteria did not transformed, but survived. In the area around the blue colony, there is no ampicillin. They find themselves in an area without amp. and start to grow. They grow after the blue cell killed the antibiotic.
These are called satellite colonies
The plasmids in lanes 3,4,8 and 9 have been digested using one restriction enzyme and had been cut at one restriction site, resulting in a linear molecule. Comparing lanes 3 and 4 to
pBK-CMV is a plasmid vector 4518 in size, it also contains a multiple coding site (polylinker) that has recognition sequences for many restriction endonucleases. cDNA molecule CHI-1, which is 600bp, has been previously inserted. pUC19 is a cloning vector developed by….. in …….at….(REF). This vector is 2686bp in size and contains a 54 base pair (bp) polylinker containing 13 specific restriction sites, Xba1 and EcoR1 inclusive. It makes a good cloning vector as it is small in size, this makes it easier to be taken up by its host during transformation and allows for a faster replication time (Green, 2015). It contains an origin of replication pMB1 which is essential to be able to replicate. pMB1 has a high copy number allowing for multiple copies to be made (REF hcn pmb1). The pUC19 plasmid vector contains an ampicillin resistance gene, the host containing this plasmid will survive in the presence of ampicillin allowing for the selection of transformed host bacteria. The polylinker of pUC19 is contained within a lacz’ gene allowing us to distinguish between recombinant pUC19 and non-recombinant pUC19 through a process call insertional inactivation (Green, 2015).
The plate with –pGLO, LB and ampicillin will show no growth and no glowing as no arabinose is present for glowing to be activated or ampicillin for growth promotion. Not only to make things glow in the dark when activated, but to enhance crop yield in developing countries and cure illnesses in people who cannot naturally fight them. The main weakness of our experimental procedure was not correctly mixing the plasmid correctly or not effectively to promote genetic transformation, but other weaknesses were prevalent throughout the experiment also.
There are many different cells that do many different things. But all of these cells fall into two categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and are larger in size than prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus, are smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells. Two of their similarities are they both have DNA as their genetic material and are covered by a cell membrane. Two main differences between these two cells are age and structure. It is believed that prokaryotic cells were the first forms on earth. They are considered primitive and originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago. Eukaryotic cells have only been around for about a billion years. There is strong evidence that suggests eukaryotic cells may be evolved from groups of prokaryotic cells that became interdependent on each other (Phenotypic analysis. (n.d.).
It has an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides, a periplasmic space with a peptidoglycan layer, and an inner cytoplasmic membrane. It also consists of adhesive fimbriae. Some strains of E. coli are piliated and are capable of accepting, as well as transferring plasmid to and from other bacteria. This enables the bacteria under stressful or bad conditions to survive. Although its structure is simple with only one chromosomal DNA and a plasmid, it can perform complicated metabolism to help maintain its cell division and cell growth. E. coli produce very rapidly; a single microscopic cell can divide to form a visible colony with millions of cells overnight (phschool.com). It is the preferred bacteria in most laboratories because it grows fast and easy, and can obtain energy from a wide variety of sources. Since the birth of molecular cloning, E. coli has been used as a host for introduced DNA sequences (biotechlearn.org.nz). In 1973, Boyer and Cohen showed that two short pieces of DNA could be cut and pasted together, and returned to
“Antibiotics" is the name given to the group of chemicals, particularly in medicine, that stop or inhibit the growth of, microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, and parasites, or that kill the microorganism. They are, however, completely ineffective against viruses. There are two kinds of antibiotics, namely; bactericides, which interfere with the cell wall or contents of the bacteria, thereby killing it, and bacteriostatics, which prevent the bacteria from reproducing. They are used to treat bacterial infections in humans and animals. Bacteria are microorganisms consisting of single cells, and reproduce by mitosis. They usually live in colonies. Some bacteria and other microorganisms produce antibiotics to kill off other species, making more resources available for the organism making the chemicals. Ironically, it was this that led to the discovery of antibiotics in 1928, when Alexander Fleming noticed that the fungus Penicillium notatum, which had contaminated a sample of pathogenic bacteria, had killed the bacterial colonies in a petri dish.
To get a clear insight of how pathogenic bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, one has to understand first how antibiotics work. Antibiotics are manufactured to interact with a specific target molecule produced by the bacteria. The target molecule performs protoplasm in the bacterium that is the driving cause of cellular growth and survival of the pathogen. Antibiotics hinder the growth and survival of the bacteria so that the bacteria can die. To inhibit the target’s function, an antibiotic must do three things. First, it has to reach the site of the target molecule. Second, the antibiotic has to persist at the site to have its effect. Third, the antibiotic needs to prevent the proper formation of cell walls and stop metabolic processes performed by the bacteria to prevent protein synthesis.
Bacteria can be prevented from growing and/or living with the use of antibiotics. Antibiotics combat bacteria several ways by preventing the cell wall from developing properly, protein synthesis hindrance, interferes with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) production by impeding cell division, interfering with outer-membrane and plasma function, killing the cell (Aziz, 2013).
Antibiotic resistance is bacteria’s loss of susceptibility to the bactericidal or growth-inhibiting properties of an antibiotics. When a resistant strain of bacteria is the dominant strain in an infection, the infection may be untreatable and deadly he primary mechanisms of bacterial gene transfer are transduction and conjugation. Transduction occurs when a bacterial virus, called a bacteriophage, detaches from one bacterial cell, carrying with it some of that bacterium’s genome, and then infects another cell. When the bacteriophage inserts its genetic content into the genome of the next bacterium, the previous bacterium’s DNA also is incorporated into the genome. Conjugation occurs when two bacteria come into physical contact with each other and a plasmid, sometimes carry...
On the other hand, cells that have resistance from the start or acquire it later may survive. At the same time, when antibiotics attack disease-causing bacteria, they also attack benign bacteria. This process eliminates drug-susceptible bacteria and favors bacteria that are resistant. Two things happen, populations of non-resistant and harmless bacteria are diminished, and because of the reduction of competition from these harmless and/or susceptible bacteria, resistant forms of disease-causing bacteria proliferate. As the resistant forms of the bacteria proliferate, there is more opportunity for genetic or chromosomal mutation (spontaneous DNA mutation (1)) or transformation, that comes about either through a form of microbial sex (1) or through the transference of plasmids, small circles of DNA (1), which allow bacteria to interchange genes with ease.
Antibiotics have been vitally important for many years in treating infectious diseases in both, humans and animals. Their discovery was described as the miracle of the 20th century [1]. However the overuse of antibiotics caused the emergence of a new problem, antibiotic resistance.
“A gene is a segment of DNA or a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that code for a functional product,” Tortora. Microbiology. p. 575. The syllable of the syllable. These genes not only affect our outlook, but also play a role.
Bacteria are single celled microbes. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. In this process, the bacterium, which is a single cell, divides into two identical daughter cells. Binary
Prokaryotic cell: have no membrane covered organelles, they also have circular DNA and bacteria, Eukaryotic cell: have membrane covered organelles, they also have linear DNA and all other cells. Also the cell cycle is short in prokaryotic cells, roughly taking about 20-26 minutes to complete. And in eukaryotic cells, the cell cycle is long, it usually takes about 12-24 hours to complete. Below is a table of some of the differences between the cells:
Prokaryotes include several kinds of microorganisms, such as bacteria and cyanobacteria. Eukaryotes include microorganisms as fungi, protozoa, and simple algae. Virus cells often consist of just a nucleic acid either DNA or RNA in a protein capsule. Viruses are considered neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes because they lack the characteristics of living things, except the ability to replicate (which they accomplish only in living cells).