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Psychobiology of Schizophrenia
Essay on neurobiology of schizophrenia
Essay on neurobiology of schizophrenia
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Recommended: Psychobiology of Schizophrenia
Risperdal
Risperidone is an atypical antipsychotic used to alleviate the
symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is defined by its effects
in altering perception, thoughts, or consciousness called
hallucinations or delusions. It affects about 1% of the population,
with about 2 million people affected in the United States. About 50%
of those affected become severely and permanently disabled and
dependent upon public assistance. Schizophrenics make up about 10%
of the totally disabled population and as much as 14% of the
homeless. The United States spends about $70 billion annually.
About 1 out of 4 patients will attempt suicide, and 1 in 10 will
succeed. There is great social stigma associated with the disease
(Sarason & Sarason, 2001, pg. 350).
The dopamine theory behind the cause of schizophrenia states
that in part excess dopamine is a possible factor or there is more
than an average number of dopamine, Type 2 receptors. Risperidone
acts on the dopamine D2 receptor (Sarason, et al, 2001, pg. 368).
Risperidone is a psychotropic drug and is part of the chemical
class of benzisoxazole derivatives used as a treatment for
schizophrenia, with some results for bipolar manic disorder, as well.
The molecular formula is C23H27FN4O2, with a molecular weight of
410.49 (Ereshefsky & Mascarena, 2003).
Route of administration is oral. Once the drug passes the
esophagus and stomach, it makes its way into the small intestines.
There are beds of capillaries within the intestine walls.
In his novel, The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain applies his thoughts upon societal hypocrisy by using the characters to convey their religious entitlement as a societal norm rather than focusing on the true moral teachings that Christianity implies. Throughout the book, Twain adopts a sentimental yet humorous tone to portray the characters’ ironic behavior towards biblical teachings and their reason for going completely against them.
Prohibition is possibly one of the most memorable events in the history of the United States. The 18th Amendment and eventually the Volstead Act created the law that made it illegal to produce, sell and the transport of alcohol over .5%. Although to most it seemed like a good idea, prohibition promoted the likes of criminal entrepreneurs. Numerous government officials were apprehended in night-clubs and speakeasies but never punished. At the time prohibition was also separating the social classes and making issues for those less prominent in the community. Holes in the government’s plans were beginning to show through leading up to the 21st Amendment and the ratification of the 13th. Prohibition failed to limit consumption and was actually costing the US more than originally expected. However according to Dr. Jack Blocker’s article, “Alcohol Prohibition as a Public Health Innovation” the claim that prohibition failed is actually false and failed only because voters became blinded by priorities over the Great Depression. With the amount of money being made on the illegal sale of alcohol was consumption really limited, or did Americans see a chance to overcome poverty and ratify the Amendment.
In the late 1800’s it was discovered that papa-amino-phenol, could reduce fever, but the drug was too toxic to use. A less toxic extract called phenacetin was later found to be just as effective but also had pain-relieving properties. In 1949, it was learned that phenacetin was metabolized into an active but also less toxic drug, acetaminophen. Since then, acetaminophen has been sold under many over the counter brand names, most popular being Tylenol.
Despite all the efforts put into the prohibition of alcohol, the law failed miserably due to lack of enforcements and the disrespect for the law by criminals. The prohibition was supposed to improve the country’s social problems but it only led to the rise of powerful criminals.
Morphine is a highly addictive opiate psychoactive painkiller. It is often used before or after surgery to alleviate severe pain. Morphine acts by attaching to specific proteins called opioid receptors, which are found in the brain, spinal cord, and gastrointestinal tract. The drug was originally derived from the poppy seed plant before it was chemically enhanced and manufactured. Starting off, the drug was used to cure alcoholism and certain types of addictions. This didn’t last very long considering morphine was found to be much more addictive than alcohol. In the early 1900s, morphine was identified as a controlled substance under the Harrison Act. The Harrison Act was put in place to control morphine by making it only legal for those with a prescription for the drug to carry and use it. It is now considered a Schedule I&II drug, which basically defines the levels of enforcement against the drugs. At the time, morphine was the most commonly abused drug, because of its mind-numbing, and reality shattering capabilities.
The discovery of morphine, which occurred in 1803, transformed the medical treatment of pain and chronic diseases (Levinthal, 2005). Morphine, a narcotic or opioid, is widely used in the medical field today and is specifically used therapeutically to treat moderate to severe pain in individuals. The most common routes of administration for morphine are oral and intravenous administration (Angel, Gould, Carey, 1998). Morphine acts by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and thus reduces the perception of pain and emotional responses to pain (Weil and Winifred, 2004). The paper will focus on the therapeutic uses of morphine for individuals. Morphine is used in the treatment of pain with individuals suffering from cancer and acute myocardial infarction. Morphine is also administered to patients after surgery to decrease pain and is even thought to decrease the chances of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (Busse, 2006; Herlitz, Hjalmarson, and Waagstein, 1989; Levin, 2010).
Although the National Prohibition Act, known as the Volstead Act, enacted on the year 1919 was designed to support the 18th amendment of the constitution, American leaders often times found it difficult to enforce the Prohibition Act. The act was enacted to “prohibit intoxicated beverages and to regulate the manufacture, production, use and sale of high proof spirits for other than beverage purposes…” The newly enacted prohibition act was brought forward to aid the American leaders to enforce the 18th amendment to the constitution. The idea was to have the working class collaborate with the constitution regulations towards enforcing this new law. This act impacted the way that government regulated society on a daily basis. While attempting to continue to enforce the National Prohibition Act, often times government leaders found themselves seeking new ways to prevent the smuggling and trafficking of alcohol.
Schizophrenia requires a lifetime of treatment through either medications and therapy, in many cases both is needed. Psychiatrist’s help patients survive through the disease. Another form to treat schizophrenia is through antipsychotic medications which are most commonly prescribed drugs to treat schizophrenia.
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is so much more than just a teen’s novel. Through Twain’s harsh language reflective of the times and location and the use of characters Twain showed how much the thinking of the majority of people in the Deep South fought progression. Mark Twain use of Miss Watson, pap, the duke and the king and others to show just how many thoughts and traditions where opposed to seeing “blacks” as equals. Through Jim, Twain showed that “blacks” are people / equals. And, in Huck, Twain showed how a logical person could progress, despite the views and morals of the Deep South, to see “blacks” equals. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn succeeded in exposing the Deep South for what it really was; highly prejudice and extremely reluctant to change.
Several studies have been done to try to determine what makes someone go from using a drug once experimentally to becoming a drug addict. One of the most popular theories was created by Inaba and Cohen that is called the Biopsychosocial Theory. This theory takes many different factors in hand to try to explain further how a drug addiction has been influenced using three different factors, heredity, environment, and the use of psychoactive drugs (Inaba and Cohen 75). It has been found that the “intial structure and chemistry of the nervous system” is passed down through many generations and that “behaviors seem to have an inheritable component (Inaba and Cohen 76). This shows that certain actions that are associated with drugs, gambeling, etc can be influenced by addictive behaviors that were prevalent generations ago. Environment plays a huge factor in determining how drug addiction will affect a person, family dynamics, age, race, peer pressure, and tragedy are reasons someone may feel compelled to use which could lead to later continual drug abuse. Lastly, the use of psychoactive drugs plays an essential part in turning an experimental phase into a full blown drug addiction.
In Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain shows how ridiculous it is to follow society’s corrupt beliefs just because everyone else is. Twain uses the protagonist, Huck’s, adventures as he grows and matures to show this corruption. Huck goes against societal norms to do what he feels is right, even if society says it will send him to Hell. To get this message across, Twain uses frequent examples of satire to show the hypocrisy and corruption within society’s ideals. These satirical examples especially emphasize religion, education, and slavery. This coming-of-age story points out the many flaws within society in a humorous, yet truthful manner.
Huck concocts the tale about the steamship cylinder exploding as an excuse for arriving in town later than expected. When asked if anyone was hurt, Huck replies "No 'm, killed a nigger" (279). Aunt Sally is relieved, replying “Well, it’s lucky; because sometimes people do get hurt” (279). To hear that no white people where hurt or killed, Aunt Sally is depicted as racist. She does not care that a black person died. In the beginning of the book, the reader could easily attribute the racist attitudes of the speaker to the culture and time, but after being introduced to Jim, the reader is unable to maintain that distance. Therefore, it is ironic to hear Huck make such a racist comment. As the reader sees through the tale, Huck is morally above the attitudes and ways of traditional Southern society. However, he is simply speaking in a way he thinks Aunt Sally would relate, in order to fit into the situation. Although Twain wrote the novel after slavery was abolished, he set the plot several decades earlier, when slavery was still a fact of life. However, by Twain’s time, racism had not necessarily disappeared in life in the South. In this light, reading Twain’s depiction of slavery presents an allegory of the condition of blacks in the United States even after the abolition of
Suicide is when someone takes their own life. There are various reasons why someone might end their own life. Most of the time depression has a significant impact towards suicide. For the 2020 measurement, the value we are working toward is to reduce the rate of suicidal deaths. The baseline measurement is 11.3 suicides per 100,000 population occurred in 2007. The target is to bring suicide rates to 10.2 suicides per 100,000 population. The target- setting method is a 10 percent improvement on suicidal deaths. The data that is measured is measured by the numerator representing the number of deaths due to suicide and the denominator representing the number of people per
In the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain satirizes the idiocy and cruelty of society in general. The language of the book, despite its accurate reflection of 19th century dialect, in and of itself is an illustration of misunderstanding.