PSA test results are interpreted as: 0-4 ng/mL is normal. Between 4 to 10 ng/ML is 25% of developing cancer, and > 10 ng/ml is a > 50% risk of cancer. However, some men with normal PSA levels still have prostate cancer, while other men with high PSA levels do not. PSA levels increase with age often due to a higher prevalence of benign prostate hypertrophy (BPH). Therefore, no PSA cutoff can accurately guarantee that a man does not have prostate cancer.
PSA blood levels are used for several different purposes such as to diagnose prostate cancer, evaluate treatment of prostate cancer, and to evaluate the severity of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Currently there is no way to determine between prostate cancers that is aggressive verse mild cases. When screening identifies cases that is not life threatening men may experience unnecessary worry and complication to include urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction, and psychological problems.
One out of every five in 1000 men who are treated surgically will die within one month of the surgery. In addition between 10 and 70 of these men will have serious complications from surgery. Many others treated with radiotherapy or surgery 200-300 in 1000 will suffer long-term problems that include urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction and bowel problems. The PSA screening test often produces false positive results, which leads to psychological effects and other adverse effects associated with biopsy such as infection, pain and bleeding as well as more unnecessary testing. (Chou et al., 2011). (Are all these statistics from chou?)
However, The American Urological Association along with the ACS believe that PSA-based screening and early treatment for prostate cancers are still essen...
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...rgery) cause many serious complications and even death. As a result, the USPSF recommends against the use of PSA based screening test for men of all ages. However, the PSA based screening test an associated treatments of early-detected prostate cancers should be applied only to men who may benefit from early detection and related treatments. In addition to decrease complications and improved treatment effectiveness, PCa treatments should be performed at high volume centers for better control and follow up. We can only hope that future advances will provide a screening test that can better predict prognosis as well as diagnosis and will provide modes of treatment that result in less morbidity and decreased mortality rates.
References
American Cancer Society (2013). http://www.cancer.org/cancer/prostatecancer/detailedguide/prostate-cancer-survival rates.
Note that the introduction of screening may produce short-term rises (AIHW, Cancer incidence projections) due to greater detection.
What is Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA)? My loose explanation of it is, (BPA) is the scientific study of the direction and shape of a bloodstain after an accident or incident has taken place. Once carefully examined a conclusion can then take place to determine many things like, where the person(s) was standing on impact, what force caused the impact, how hard the person(s) was hit, and was this force the cause of death, if death occurred in the case. Bevel and Gardner (2001), explain (BPA) as “the examination of the physical nature of bloodstains provides information specific to the events that occurred during the incidents.” Bevel and Gardner (2001) also go on to show in more
For many years researchers have endeavoured to enhance current methods in cervical screening which utilises the Papanicolaou smear (also known as a Pap smear). Limitations in the smear have caused major emphasis to increase sensitivity and specificity whilst also creating an automated screening procedure. The Pap smear was initially introduced in the context of cervical screening in the detection of pre-cancerous lesions of the cervix in 1940’s (Koss, 1989). Cervical screens are vital as research has shown 90% of women with invasive cervical carcinoma could be prevented by finding any lesions early (Grace. et al. (2001). Cervical screening in the UK presented with an annual reduction of 7% but the Pap smear also possesses many limitations such as high error rates (Graff. et al. 1987) Figure 1.
of decisions can and cannot be made on the basis of test data, and how should those decisions be made? What credentials, if any, are necessary to administer and interpret psychological tests? What rights do examinees undergoing psychological evaluation have? Public scrutiny of psychological testing reached its zenith in 1965 with a series of probing and unprecedented congressional hearings (see Amrine, 1965). Against a backdrop of mounting public concern about—as well as legal challenges to—psychological testing, many psychologists in the 1960s began to look anew at the testing enterprise. Beyond being a mere instrument of measurement, a psychological test was conceptualized by many as a tool of a highly trained examiner. The value of a particular
Prostate cancer has been the number one diagnosed cancer today. According to the World Health Organization, approximately one in every ten American men will develop prostate cancer during his lifespan. This cancer has been very common in the last few years. American Cancer Society reported over 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer. Huge number of population suffered severely. The prostate is significant for reproduction. It helps the substances that are involved in fertilization and transporting of sperm as well as survival. Prostate tumor is developed in the prostate gland, which is found in the men’s reproductive system. Prostate is the size of a walnut, which is located inferiorly in the penis and anterior to the rectum. It contains the connective tissue, which includes the glandular and fibrous tissues. This tumor starts to develop during their adolescent year due to the control of the male reproductive hormones. When the tumor starts to develop, it begins at the urethra, which is a tube that releases the urine from the bladder. The tumor is a slow development yet it is contagious to the other parts of the body, such as it does affect the pelvic bones, lungs, liver, and the lower vertebrae (Zenka, 2009).
For these reasons, minorities often put off the expense of seeing a doctor until they have advanced disease and are past being easily treated. A lack of education, rural or inner city residence, unemployment, and low literacy rate may also contribute to higher cancer mortality rates for some communities. In several studies researchers investigates whether socioeconomic status is the reason for the disparity in prostate cancer incidence, where African Americans and Non- Hispanic Whites are the top two candidates for prostate cancer. Some results found that the highest level of cancer incidence was positively correlated with low socioeconomic status (Cheng, et al.,
Testicular cancer is only present in males because only males have testicles. About 8,820 cases of testicular cancer are diagnosed every year. About 380 men die from testicular cancer each year. This is actually a very high survival rate. Also, the risk of a man dying from testicular cancer is about 1 in 5,000 because it is highly treatable and sometimes can be curable. It seems that the group most affected by testicular cancer is middle aged men, the average age to be diagnosed is 33. Only 6% of testicular cancer cases occur in children and teens, and about 7% of testicular cancer cases are men above 55 years old. All in all, testicular cancer is a type of cancer only in males and starts off in the testicles. It is not that common and the survival rate is very high because of the technology and doctors of today.
According to American Cancer Society, statistic shows over 228,190 new cases of lung cancer are reported yearly, that’s 57% men and 43% women of the pie. The number shows lung cancer is likely happen to men. Also the estimated reported death is 159,480, mostly 54% men and only 46% women. The concern on lung cancer contributes 27% of the cancer death in United States. The contribution of lung cancer plays a big pie on many deaths in American. Also, most of the patients are men. The chance that a man will develop lung cancer in his lifetime is about 1 in 13; for a woman, the risk is about 1 in 16. These numbers include both smokers and non-smokers. For smokers the risk is much higher, while for non-smokers the risk is lower. (Accor...
However, at the center of medical practice, the talent of healing should always stay paramount. Bob Sneed is a 68-year-old man with a case of prolonging prostate cancer. Before diagnosis he began to experience the following symptoms: trouble urinating, noticed blood in his urine, and experienced general pain in his lower back, hips and thighs. He also experienced discomfort in his pelvic area. As the fatal disease continued to evolve, he has begun chemotherapy. He has become weak, and he has very small notion to eat. He has been seeing a physician on a current basis. His back pain is now controlled with high-dose of antibiotics, but the antibiotics have caused an increase drop in blood pressure. In addition to seeing the health care provider, he has also been seeing a psychologist to help him to manag...
this is called toxicological or other product safety assessment. And some tests are used for an assortment of other vital tests.... ... middle of paper ... ...
Animal Testing is one of the most horrible things you could do to an animal. When an animal is tested you could cause it to become crippled for the rest of its life whether they make it blind or even making it to become paralyzed you could even cause extreme pain or death.
For example if the liver is damaged or diseased then some of its enzymes will leak into the bloodstream. A blood test will check for this and give the doctor an idea as to what has happened.
Morris, D. T. (1993). Cost containment and reproductive autonomy: Prenatal genetic screening and the American health security act of 1993. American Journal of Law & Medicine, 20, 295-316.
Trevena L. (2009) Cancer screening Reprinted from Australian Family Physician: School of Public Health, University of Sydney, New South Wales. Vol. 38, No. 4
Couch, D., Liamputtong, P., & Pitts, M. (2012). What are the real and perceived risks and