DNA has a unique structure. It consists of two strands twisted around each other in the shape we call a helix. It is a nucleic acid macromolecule that is made up of nucleotides that are covalently bonded together. It has nitrogenous bases that are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. It has base pairing where for each adenine in DNA there is a thymine for it and for each cytosine there is a guanine. Protein synthesis is the synthesis of polypeptide chains which then produce the specific proteins based on the genetic code in DNA. This happens in two stages, transcription and translation.
Transcription occurs in the nucleus and is the synthesis of an RNA copy of a segment of DNA. DNA contains the genes which code for specific polypeptides. This process uses an enzyme called RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase attaches itself to the promoter on the DNA and starts transcription. The RNA polymerase binds to a DNA molecule and separates its two strands. One strand of the DNA serves as a model to put the nucleotides together into a complementary mRNA strand. Promoters signal where the RNA ...
In order to do this a polymer of DNA “unzips” into its two strands, a coding strand (left strand) and a template strand (right strand). Nucleotides of a molecule known as mRNA (messenger RNA) then temporarily bonds to the template strand and join together in the same way as nucleotides of DNA. Messenger RNA has a similar structure to that of DNA only it is single stranded. Like DNA, mRNA is made up of nucleotides again consisting of a phosphate, a sugar, and an organic nitrogenous base. However, unlike in DNA, the sugar in a nucleotide of mRNA is different (Ribose) and the nitrogenous base Thymine is replaced by a new base found in RNA known as Uracil (U)3b and like Thymine can only bond to its complimentary base Adenine. As a result of how it bonds to the DNA’s template strand, the mRNA strand formed is almost identical to the coding strand of DNA apart from these
The study of nucleic acids has now become a fruitful and dynamic scientific enterprise. Nucleic acids are of unique importance in biological systems. Genes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, and each gene is a linear segment, or polymer, of a long DNA molecule. A DNA polymer, or DNA oligonucleotide, contains a linear arrangement of subunits called nucleotides. There are four types of nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three components; a phosphate group, a sugar and a base that contains nitrogen within its structure. The sugar moiety in DNA oligonucleotides is always dexoyribose, and there are four alternative bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). The phosphate groups and the deoxyribose sugars form the backbone of each DNA stand. The bases are joined to the deoxyribose sugar and stick out to the side. Both oligomers, DNA and RNA, consist of 5’->3’ phosphodiester-linked nucleotide units that are composed of a 2’-deoxy-D-ribose (DNA) or D-ribose (RNA) in their furanose forms and a heteroaromatic nucleobase (A, T, G, and C; A, U, G, C), and the resulting oligonucleotide chain is composed of a polar, negatively charged sugar-phosphate backbone and an array of hydrophobic nucleobases. The amphiphilic nature of these polymers dictates the assembly and maintenance of secondary and tertiary structures the oligonucleotides can form. In the DNA duplex structure, genetic information is stored as a linear nucleotide code. This code can be accessed and replicated. RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is another structurally related essential biopolymer. RNA differs from DNA in having the sugar ribose in place of the deoxyribos...
Also in a PRC reaction, DNA Polymerase is made of many complicated proteins with the function of duplicating DNA before division occurs (2).
Since DNA has the instructions for making the proteins, but it has to be highly protected, it doesn’t leave the nucleus where it is mostly found (Hall, 6). DNA’s function is to be a long-term storage and transmission of the genetic information (DNA vs RNA, 2014). Copies of certain instructions needed for proteins can be made in the form of RNA. It’s not an exact copy of what is found in DNA, but RNA can travel out of the nucleus with the instructions. RNA make...
What has to happen for a gene to be transcribed? The enzyme RNA polymerase, which makes a new RNA molecule from a DNA template, must attach to the DNA of the gene. It attaches at a spot called the promoter.
strands which make up the letters of a genetic code. In certain regions of a DNA strand
DNA methylation primarily occurs within sites in the DNA sequence known as CpG dinucleotides, which is a 2 base pair sequence involving a Cytosine bonded to a Guanine by a phosphodiester bond.
Each of the nucleotides accommodate a phosphate group, sugar group, and a nitrogen base. There is four nitrogen bases in DNA. The four nitrogen bases are; Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C). Each of the bases are connected to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. They are then positioned into two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix (DNA). The nitrogen bases are paired up with one another. Adenine and Thymine will always be paired with each other because of the bonds between them. Between A and T, there are two hydrogen bonds. The same goes with Guanine always being paired with Cytosine due. Between both G and C there is three hydrogen bonds. The nitrogen bases Adenine and Guanine won’t pair up with each other because, of their size. Both the nitrogen bases Adenine and Guanine are a purine base. Thymine and Cytosine are both a pyrimidine base. Adenine pairs with Thymine, and Guanine pairs with Cytosine, because they are of opposite
About 20% of the human body is made up of protein. Because your body doesn’t store protein, it’s important to get enough from your diet each day.
The Functions of Proteins Introduction Protein accounts for about three-fourths of the dry matter in humans. tissues other than fat and bone. It is a major structural component of hair, skin, nails, connective tissues, and body organs. It is required for practically every essential function in the body. Proteins are made from the following elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. and often sulphur and phosphorus.
Abstract: Enzymes are catalysts therefore we can state that they work to start a reaction or speed it up. The chemical transformed due to the enzyme (catalase) is known as the substrate. In this lab the chemical used was hydrogen peroxide because it can be broken down by catalase. The substrate in this lab would be hydrogen peroxide and the enzymes used will be catalase which is found in both potatoes and liver. This substrate will fill the active sites on the enzyme and the reaction will vary based on the concentration of both and the different factors in the experiment. Students placed either liver or potatoes in test tubes with the substrate and observed them at different temperatures as well as with different concentrations of the substrate. Upon reviewing observations, it can be concluded that liver contains the greater amount of catalase as its rates of reaction were greater than that of the potato.
Scientists, coaches, and athletes have recognized that periodized strength training promotes increase in skeletal muscle size, increase in force, and increase of the regenerating capacity of the muscle cells.
Moderation is vital in all aspects of life and is necessary for overall health, including with one’s food intake. Protein is one of the many important nutrient building blocks that is necessary for proper growth and good health. However, eating excessive amounts of any nutrient or inadequate amounts, can cause various health concerns. Scientists have been able to estimate the amount of nutrients that the body requires. However, the amount of any particular nutrient varies from person to person, depending on your “age, sex, general health status, physical activity level, and use of medications and drugs” (Schiff 2013). It is also important to remember that consuming the required amount of nutrients that meets your dietary guidelines does not
Proteins are considered to be the most versatile macromolecules in a living system. This is because they serve crucial functions in all biological processes. Proteins are linear polymers, and they are made up of monomer units that are called amino acids. The sequence of the amino acids linked together is referred to as the primary structure. A protein will spontaneously fold up into a 3D shape caused by the hydrogen bonding of amino acids near each other. This 3D structure is determined by the sequence of the amino acids. The 3D structure is referred to as the secondary structure. There is also a tertiary structure, which is formed by the long-range interactions of the amino acids. Protein function is directly dependent on this 3D structure.
Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes. To start off, a protein is made in a ribosome. There are many cellular mechanisms involved with protein synthesis. Before the process of protein synthesis can be described, a person must know what proteins are made out of. There are four basic levels of protein organization. The first is primary structure, followed by secondary structure, then tertiary structure, and the last level is quaternary structure. Once someone understands the makeup of a protein, they can then begin to learn how elements can combine and go from genes to protein. There are two main processes that occur during protein synthesis, or peptide formation. One is transcription and the other is translation. Although these biological processes slightly differ for eukaryotes and prokaryotes, they are the basic mechanisms for which proteins are formed in all living organisms.