Introduction
This paper is used to gain a better understanding of premature births and the causes of pre-term birth in relation to genetics and environmental effects. Also, it will look into what premature birth means for the growth and development of the effected child throughout his/her life. A normal human gestation period is about 40 weeks from the start of the last menstrual period until childbirth. Any labor that begins before 37 weeks of pregnancy is considered preterm labor. Preterm birth is the leading cause of infant death and long-term difficulties such as neurological damage and disabilities in children. Late-preterm birth refers to children born from the 34th week of pregnancy to sometime before the 37th week. Over 70% of infants determined as preterm are born during this time. (nichd)
According to Zhou, preterm birth is the leading cause of infant death throughout the world, yet the underlying causes remain primarily unknown (Zhou 1). The health of a child at time of birth is affected by many factors. These include, but are not limited to, maternal health of the mother, her education, behavior, and exposure to environmental pollution (Inequality at birth). This is a huge problem affecting our understanding of the causes of preterm birth and therefore effecting how we can react to it. In general, preterm births can be classified as either spontaneous or indicated medically due to a complication of the mother or fetus during pregnancy. (Medscape 2). Spontaneous preterm labor is hard to study because it happens so fast. Medically indicated preterm birth that is due to such complications can be studied using genetic and environmental causes.
Genetic Causes
Genetic causes include racial disparities and familial inherita...
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...r. Patients that are heterozygotic the IL-4(-590T) allele have a higher risk factor for preterm birth (Medscape). The polymorphism of IL-6, on the other hand, leads to an increased amount of IL-6 which actually decreases the risk for preterm birth when it is in the homozygous state.
Genetic causes are not only seen in cytokines but also in noncytokine gene polymorphisms. MMPs are related to the rupture of amniotic membranes. One study analyzed the levels of MMPs in the amniotic membranes of African American women versus white women when they were exposed to endotoxin stimuli. The membranes of African American women produced a greater amount of MMP-9. Polymorphisms in MMP-9 may be more common in African American women compared to white women could explain the advanced expression and also explain why African American women have higher levels of of PPROM (Medscape).
The focus of this paper is to discuss the different characteristics of the two most effective methods of child births: Natural births and Cesarean section (C-section). Child birth includes labor and delivery; the entire process of passage from the womb, to the birth canal, to the outside world. Natural birth is a method of child birth in which medical interventions are minimal and the mother usually practices relaxation and breathing techniques to minimize pain during delivery. Cesarean section (c-section) is a method of birth which involves delivery through incisions in the abdominal walls and uterus. Natural births and C-sections both pose documented medical risks to the mother’s health including infections and other medical mishaps (Rowe- Murray 2002).
The opportunity to bring life into the world is a priceless moment, and for that to be threatened by a disease; such as Placenta Previa, is heartbreaking. Placenta previa is commonly described as the imbedding of the placenta over or close to the cervix. According to the Permanente Medical Group, during a normal pregnancy the placenta forms at the top part of the uterus far from the cervix. However in placenta previa, the placenta tends to attach to the lower section of the uterus either covering or partially over the cervix, making it almost impossible for a normal delivery (vaginal birth) to take place (Placenta Previa). Placenta previa complicates about 1 in every 200 deliveries and is one of the top leading causes of vaginal bleedings for the second and third trimester (Getahun). It is also related with the escalation of risks of maternal and infant illness and death (Getahun). Instead of there being a specific or many solutions over the years, doctors have come to agreement with different treatments for placenta previa. The obvious solution to placenta previa is to reduce your risks by avoiding cigarettes and any type of drugs, try to reduce your use of abortions an cesarean section, meaning no elective C-sections (The Bump). However, because the reduction in the things above is unlikely due to the mind-frame and unawareness of today’s women, the medical board has to think of alternative treatments to placenta previa, such as bed rest, constant monitoring through-out the pregnancy, and cesarean section. In this essay, I will evaluate the above listed treatments, which stage the doctor will suggest the treatment and explain which I believe is best.
Although there are many factors that affect the development of the fetus, research on the specific effects of prenatal maternal stress and the resulting negative outcomes for the development of the fetus will be reviewed. While there is knowledge of these harmful effects in scientific and medical communities, researchers are still in the midst of discovering the results of these negative effects on human development. An overall review of the literature suggests that this topic is still relatively new in research as most of the articles make note that despite the amount of current research studies, there are still many unanswered questions.
As defined by Lowdermilk, Perry and Cashion, preterm labor is “cervical changes and uterine contractions occurring between 20 and 37 weeks of pregnancy”. Preterm birth is a dramatic event causing distress for both the child and parents. There is a significant amount of information available on the risk factors related to preterm labor. Seeing the ineffectiveness of interventions directed towards known risk factors emphasizes the lack of maternal understanding of possible underlying pathways.
According to Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, “In the United States, nearly thirteen percent of babies are born preterm, and many of these babies also have a low birth weight.” The baby may be put into the NICU for varies reasons. However, the most common reason that a child is put into the NICU is because he or she is premature. Premature means the baby was born before the 36 weeks. It is never good for a baby to be born early, as this could mean that the baby is not fully developed. There are other factors as to why a child may need to be put into the NICU after birth. For instance, birth defects can be the cause of why a baby is put into the NICU. A baby may be born with an infection such as herpes or chlamydia which can damage the newborns immune system at such a young age. Low blood sugar or hypoglycemia can also cause an infant to be put into the NICU. Some maternal factors of why a baby may be put into the NICU is if the mother is “younger than 16 or older than 40.” If the parent may be an alcoholic or expose the baby to drugs, this can put the child into NICU care. If the parent has an STD or sexual transmitted disease, the baby is most likely going to have to be put into the intensive care unit. “Twins, triplets, and other multiples are often admitted into the NICU, as they tend to be born earlier and s...
One issue that is a big factor causing this is stress caused by racism. According to “Can Stress Cause Premature Labor?” By Cherly Bird, RN. Chronic stress is a stressful situation occurs and is not resolved, or reoccurs. The body is not able to cope with the stressful situation and does not return to normal. Studies show that moms with more stress are more likely to go into labor early, so we can say that stress increases a mom's risk of premature labor. When you are stressed the body can react in different ways, either with blood pressure or hormones. Some things that can help control the stress is counseling, talking about how you feel can help. Also, exercising, or complimentary therapies are a good way to help be more relaxed during a pregnancy.
17. American College of Medical Genetics Clinical Practice Committee. Statement on multiple marker screening in pregnant women. American College of Medical Genetics College Newsletter, January 1996;6.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, one out of every eight babies each year in the United States is born premature. This affects approximately 500,000 babies yearly. Premature babies are defined as babies born more than three weeks before the baby’s due date. Full term babies are born at approximately forty weeks, and premature babies are born at less than thirty-seven weeks. In the final months and weeks of pregnancy, important growth and development occur in the fetus. This is why premature babies are considered to be at-risk for a number of issues. The earlier that a baby is born, the baby’s risks drastically increase for developmental issues.
"Fetal Development: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia." National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Web. 06 Mar. 2011. .
The process of human development is very complex. It is a continual process, providing gradual development for the fetus. Some of the most important factors to fetal development such as blood flow, heart beats, muscle development, and brain activity can all be determined within the first seven weeks of pregnancy (Baby Developme...
Reddy, U. M., Zhang, J., Sun, L., Chen, Z., Raju, T. N., & Laughon, K. (2012). Neonatal mortality by attempted route of delivery in early preterm birth. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 207(2). doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2012.06.023
Over the years birthing methods have changed a great deal. When technology wasn’t so advanced there was only one method of giving birth, vaginally non-medicated. However, in today’s society there are now more than one method of giving birth. In fact, there are three methods: Non-medicated vaginal delivery, medicated vaginal delivery and cesarean delivery, also known as c-section. In the cesarean delivery there is not much to prepare for before the operation, except maybe the procedure of the operation. A few things that will be discussed are: the process of cesarean delivery, reasons for this birthing method and a few reasons for why this birthing method is used. Also a question that many women have is whether or not they can vaginally deliver after a cesarean delivery, as well as the risks and benefits if it. Delivering a child by a c-section also has a few advantages and disadvantages for both the mother and child; this will also be discussed in more depth a bit later.
Pregnancy is an interesting time in women’s life, because she creates a new human to the world. Even though it’s an interesting time for the mother, it also could be dangerous time for the mother and the baby. Pregnancy is divided into three trimesters, and each trimester consists of three months. Complications happen throughout all the trimester, but the third trimester has a lot of complications. Complications in the third trimester are not just dangerous for the baby, but for the mother also.
A lot of pregnancies have led to maternal mortality and maternal morbidity. This area of concern is often situated with MFM subspecialists, in order to reduce the rate of maternal mortality and maternal morbidity (Haywood, B., 2012). The Society for Maternal-fetal Medicine also strives to improve maternal and child birth outcomes by standards of prevention, diagnosis and treatment through research, education and training. (Schubert, K. & Cavarocchi, N., 2012) In order for MFM subspecialists to help reduce the rate of maternal deaths, they must receive adequate training and education, including research, which is very essential for treatment. The main focus of the MFM subspecialist is early diagnosis of fetal abnormalities, pathogenesis, and early diagnosis and treatment of pre-eclampsia and fetal growth restriction. In ...
The environment can influence a lot during prenatal development. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) state “genes can do nothing without environmental input—and that environmental effects are shaped by genetic constraints” (p. 34). Teratogens and disease can cause birth defects during prenatal development. Pregnant mothers should avoid things like drugs, radiation, and stay away from people or places that could be infested with viruses. These can result in a defect in th...