Non-Dominant Arm Experiment

Subjects This study was conducted on 75 healthy University of Sydney medical science students of both sexes and varying ages and body types. All participants were given ethical and safety awareness of the experiment, and had a choice to participate. Their medical conditions (i.e. allergies) and any previous morning medication taken were considered prior to allowing them to participate.

Ischemic induced pain The ischaemic pain was produced in the participants’ non-dominant arm by using a sphygmomanometer cuff, which was inflated and maintained at 200 mmHg. The subject squeezed a handheld force measuring device, maintaining a constant force of 10 kg (females) or 20 kg (males) for 3 seconds. This was repeated at 10-second intervals

The participants stated their pain level as it changed, following the specific assessment of pain mentioned. Scores were recorded along with time of recording (seconds) The experiment was conducted for a maximum duration of 2 minutes, where t=0 was when the participant submerged his hand. Again, a stopwatch was used to keep track of time. Once the threshold of tolerance was exceeded the experiment was ceased, preventing any risks of injury. This assessment was used consistently throughout the experiment. The ice bath consisted of a plastic container, with ice and water, where ice was added periodically to maintain the temperature throughout the course of the study. This test was conducted twice for each participant, prior to and 60 minutes after consuming

Subjects were then single-blindedly allocated into one of three groups, all of which involved consuming two tablets orally. Medical conditions and recently consumed medications were taken into account before assigning the subjects into their respective groups. The groups were as follows; group A (n=24) consumed 2 placebo tablets, group B (n=25) consumed 2 paracetamol tablets (1000 mg), and group C (n=26) consumed 1 Panadeine (8mg codeine) and 1 paracetamol tablet (1000 mg). If the subject weight less than 51 kg, only half of the mentioned doses was given. After drug administration, participants rested for 60 minutes to allow digestion of the drugs. After which, they repeated the ischemic and cold-induced pain