1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fungus exists in a form of mycelium or can occur as sclerotia, a resistant structure. The production of additional hyphae and asexual spores, conidia are due to the germination of the sclerotia. The product then will be freely introduced in the soil, water and air. Fungi that are being introduced into body of water which subsequently change the taste and odours of the drinking water. Drinking of the infected water will cause fungal infections in human. Despite through water, human diseeses are also possible through several circumtances which include exposure to aflatoxins, direct infection and allergy. Aflatoxins or mycotoxins are harmful to animals or humans (Hedayati et al, 2007).
Dramatic increases in fungal diseases caused by filamentous fungi have occured since 1980s (Latģe, 1999). Studies found that the etiological structure of severe mycoses caused by fungi was changed. Unknown species that causes mycosis has increased rapidly (Kouzmanov et al, 2002). For instances, systemic infections have become major causes of diseases and death in developed countries. (Sendid et al, 2006). Aspergillus species has known to be the main culprit of mycosis which causes aspergillosis. In Aspergillus species, A. flavus has become second cause of fungal infections in human. Mainly, usual syndromes clinically occuring, following trauma and inoculation which are keratitis, chronic granulomatous sinusitis, cutaneous aspergillosis, wound infections and osteomyelitis when talking about A. flavus infection. (Hedayati et al, 2007).
Opportunistic fungal infections risk has greatly increased in severely immunocomsuppressed (Kouzmanov et al, 2002) and cancer patients (Hussein-Al-Ali et al, 2014). An obvious probability of immunocompr...
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...erapeutic response assessment (Segal, 2008).
9.0 CONCLUSION
Although there are a lot of advances in finding the best antifungal as human therapy, AmB is still founded to be the antifungal agent that is the most effective. Although it comes with various toxicity effects and administration problems, AmB is still chosen for most systemic mycosis, especially when the infection occur in the immunocompromised patients (Medoff et al, 1983).
On the other hand, surveillance of diagnosis must be taken into consideration in order to be able to do identification earlier in high risk of fungal infection patients. Besides, consideration to conduct various tests in one time should increase the certainty level of a mycosis to occur and the early administration action of antifungal treatment, which will lead to a better prognosis of the human fungal diseases (Sendid et al, 2006).
For medical care, no treatment is needed for those who are asymptomatic, just monitoring for mild symptoms (2). For those who cannot fight the disease as easily as the majority, there are an array of treatments available. To start, blood cultures should be performed in all patients, and sputum cultures should be taken for those with chronic histoplasmosis (2). Chest radiology would be preferred for individuals with acute pulmonary histoplasmosis, steroids and possible laser treatment for ocular histoplasmosis, and CT scans for those with cerebral histoplasmosis (2). With prolonged symptoms of more than 4 weeks, medical therapy via itraconazole is recommended for 6-12 weeks, followed by chest imaging (2). Bronchiectasis caused by the microbe is treated with either a bronchoscopy or surgical removal (3). Phrenological treatments to histoplasmosis include amphorcetericin B, ketoconazole, itraconazole, and fluconazole (3). Currently, antifungal agents are being developed to offer alternative treatment (3). To successfully survive as a pathogen, the virus must change itself on a micro level to survive changing conditions, macrophages, and other threats to the fungi’s reproduction (4). Being able to go from an environmental mold to an intercellular yeast is extremely useful for a microbe in an ecosystem that fights for control of those it infects (4). These advantages present within histoplasmosis are what keeps it as a cause of respiratory and systemic disease in mammals (4). There are plenty of treatments available to accommodate all forms of histoplasmosis, making it a microbe that is very simple to cure, despite how hard it tries to
This condition is uncommon in children, yet having this condition can create psychological distress and predisposes the child to recurrent cutaneous fungal infections. The treatment for this diagnosis is similar to Tinea Capitis in the fact that it includes administering oral antifungal medications for an extensive period of time along with topical applicatons. The term used for fungal infections of the nail is known as onychomycosis. The dermatophte responsible for this is named Trichophyton rubrum (T. rubrum). This organism usually invades through the plantar skin lateral to the nail, then continues to the underside of the nail. This causes the child's inflammatory response to react resulting in thickening of the nail plate, formation of subungual debris, and separation of the nail from the nail bed. Then it spreads and can become so severe that it causes permanent scarring of the nail matrix. Signs and symptoms of this condition are distal and lateral separation of the nail plate from the nail bed (onycholysis) and accumulation of keratin debris under the nail (subungual hyperkeratosis), and yellowish nail discoloration with thickening of the nail. This is usually diagnosed through laboratory tests by clipping the nail, fungal cultures, and microscopic potassium hydroxide
This condition may be caused by a bacterial infection or infection with a parasite called an amoeba (Entamoeba histolytica). In rare cases, it can also be caused by infection with a fungus called Candida.
Several tests may be performed on patients to determine the cause of lymphatic damage and elephantiasis. A definitive diagnosis of lymphatic filariasis is done through the identification of the microfilariae in blood. Samples of blood are taken at night. Other test used for diagnosis is immunodiagnostic test; it can identify the cause of the symptoms based on the detection of antigens of Wuchereria bancrofti. This test is highly specific and sensitive, blood samples do not have to be taken at night (Seppa
The most common route of exposure to mycotoxins is ingestion, but it may also involve dermal, respiratory, and parenteral routes, the last being associated with drug abuse (Peraica and Domijan, 2001). In general, animals are directly exposed to mycotoxins through the consumption of mouldy feedstuffs, eating contaminated foods, skin contact with mould infected substrates and inhalation of spore-borne toxins (Bennett and Klich, 2003a). Human exposure to mycotoxins may result from consumption of plant-derived foods that are contaminated with toxins, the carry-over of mycotoxins and their metabolites in animal products such as meat and eggs (Veldman, 2004) or exposure to air and dust containing toxins (Jarvis, 2002). Most importantly, the presence of potentially toxigenic fungi does not imply the presence of mycotoxins, nor does the finding of mycotoxins prove that a particular species is, or was, present. Toxin production is dependent on substrates, nutrient levels, moisture, pH, and temperature (Murtoniemi et al.,
Candida albicans is a harmless commensal yeast which becomes pathogenic when environmental changes trigger the virulence factors of the organism. Hence Candida species are opportunistic pathogens in susceptible individuals. Oral infection caused by C. albicans known as oral candidiasis or candidosis. However, C. albicans exist in the mouths of 80% of healthy individuals. Any alteration in the environment of oral cavity can change the presence of candida from commensal to pathogenic. This translation in the status of candida is due to many predisposing factors. In the past, oral candidiasis was thought to affect mainly elderly and very young population. Recently, the incidence of oral candidiasis increased greatly with the intensification of HIV infection and immunosuppressive chemotherapy (1, 2). Oral candidiasis colonize 5% to 7% of newborn less than one month old. The infection also estimated to affect 9% to 31% of AIDS patients and nearly 20% of cancer patients (3). This review discuss the possible causes, the types of oral candidiasis, treatment and management strategies.
Voss, Andreas. Epidemiology of Systemic Candida Infections: Studies to Pursue the Molecular and Clinical Epidemiology. S.l.: Ponsen & Looijen., 1997. Print.
Fungi have been significant in both past and modern biotechnological processes (Bennett, 1998). After World War I, a traditional fungal biotechnology has begun and developed into yielding of enzymes, antibiotics, hormones, citric acids, vitamins, and fungicides (Demain, 2000). This list will continue expanding as we moved in this modern century. Fungi definitely bring lots of benefits in pharmaceutical and economic industries. For instance, pharmaceuticals and personal care products may introduce to the terrestrial environment with potential impacts on beneficial soil microbe populations (Hillis et al., 2008). We will discover more economic significant of utilization of fungi in biotechnology area.
Sordaria fimicola belongs to the kingdom of fungi and is part of the phylum Ascosmycota. This fungus habitat is in the feces of herbivores. As many fungi Sordaria have one life cycles which is haploid/ diploid. It is commonly exits as a haploid organism, but when the mycelium from two individuals meets, the result is a diploid zygote. This diploid zygote which undergoes meiosis forms eight haploid ascospores . The ability of Sordaria to make 8 haploid ascospores is what makes it unique and important for the laboratory exercise done in lab.
In a 2012 study of treatment for fungal ear infections, all of the patients were treated with clotrimazole (Viswanatha, Sumatha, & Siddappa, 2012). However, four patients did not respond to this treatment and fluconazole solution was found successful in these patients (Viswanatha, Sumatha, & Siddappa, 2012). Fluconazole otic solution 2 drops daily x 3 days then every other day x 3 weeks (Viswanatha, Sumatha, & Siddappa, 2012). It is important to avoid ear plugs or cotton balls to allow ears to be open to air and drain properly (Aspergillus, 2015). It is important to keep the ear canal as dry as possible (Aspergillus, 2015). For preventative measures, 4% boric acid solution in alcohol can be used as a cleaning agent (Aspergillus, 2015). Ear wash bilateral ears was performed in office to open the ear canal that was blocked by cerumen. Recommended treatment is suction for evacuation of matter in ear, but no equipment for that in this office available (Aspergillus, 2015). Also, Otitis media should be treated. The watchful waiting period for otitis media is two to three days (Thomas, Berner, Zahnert, & Dazert, 2014). This patient has been struggling with ear pain and odorous drainage now for longer than the watchful waiting period (Thomas et al., 2014). Therefore, a PCN is recommended like amoxicillin (Thomas et al., 2014). He reports that last time the amoxicillin alone did not eradicate the infection the
Coccidioides spp is a dimorphic fungus endemic in parts of the Western hemisphere causing a range of disease from asymptomatic infection to fatal disseminated disease. This review focuses upon its taxonomy, species identification, pathophysiology, investigation, treatment and prevention.
MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS: Empyema, Hemoptysis, Necrotizing pneumonia, Aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus) cachexia secondary to malnutrition/infection, hypothyroidism, Diabetes Type II melitius , and...
Imaging tests. Imaging tests usually aren’t necessary, but in some instances, especially when no evidence of infection is found, They may be helpful. For example, an X-ray or ultrasound may help out other potential causes inflammation, such as a tumor or structure
Tuberculosis is an infection caused by Mycobacterium Tuberculosis, an acid-fast Gram-positive bacillus, and “is characterized by progressive necrosis of the lung tissue” (Tamaro & Lewis, 2005). Tuberculosis is caused by many debilitating conditions like immunosuppression and chronic lung disease, among others. Nevertheless, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), remains the leading cause of tuberculosis worldwide. Tuberculosis can present in one of two types: active tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis. Prompt treatment prevents latent tuberculosis from evolving into active tuberculosis. (“Basic TB Facts,” 2012).
Syphilis is a sexually transmitting infection caused by Treonema pallidum, a gram negative, and anaerobic spirochete bacteria 1. Syphilis is thought to have been brought to Europe by Columbus and his sailors in the 1500’s 1. The disease is characterized by four different stages with varying symptoms depending on the stage that the disease is in1. Often syphilis is presented with another sexually transmitted infection such as chlamydia. Public education regarding safe sex is important for the prevention of this sexually transmitted infection.