Metaphysics
Whereas sciences deal with particular kinds of beings, metaphysics is concerned with beings as such. According to Aristotle, there is no such thing as mere being; to be is always to be a substance or object, a quantity, a quality, or a member of some other basic category.
I. Substance and Accidents
Substance is the primary mode of being according to Aristotle. The world is not one of atoms or particles, even though they have a place in the world. The basic notion of Aristotle's logic reflects a distinction in the way reality is structured and reflects the basic way that we view reality. Substance is whatever is a natural kind of thing and exists in its own right. Examples are rocks, trees, animals and the like. For instance, a dog is basically the same whether it is black or brown. A dog would be substance because it exists in its own right; it does not exist in something else, the way a color does.
Accidents are the modifications that substance undergoes, but that does not change the kind of thing that each substance is. Accidents only exist when they are the accidents of some substance. For Aristotle, there are ten categories into which things naturally fall. They are substance and a total of nine accidents: quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, time, place, disposition (the arrangement of parts) and "rainment" (whether a thing is dressed or armed, etc)
All of these distinctions are basically logical, but in a sense they reflect the structure of reality. One never finds any substance that we experience without some accidents, or an accident that is not the accident of a substance.
II. Matter and Form
Aristotle utilized the concept of matter and form in an entirely new way, statin...
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...he true moral value of friendship lies in the fact that the friend presents to us a mirror of good actions, and makes us more aware of our conscious and our appreciation of life. Aristotle believed that to be happy you need good friends—not too many as it is more practical to have just a few intimate friends.
"For without friends no one would choose to live, though he had all other goods."
Our virtues and morals form our ethics. Choice is critical in ethics. We have the ability to choose between good and evil. Good conduct arises from habits that occur because of repeated action and correction. Socrates believed that knowing what is right always results in doing it. Aristotle disagreed. Not doing what is right, even after giving it much thought, is a failure in morality.
According to Aristotle, we are genuinely happy when we are virtuous and moral.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that metaphysics is concerned with beings as such. according to aristotle, there is no such thing as mere being.
- Explains that the material cause of a house, for example, would include all building materials used in its construction. an explanation of the house could not exist unless they were present.
- Explains that the formal cause is the pattern or essence in conformity with which materials are assembled. this is part of the explanation of a house.
- Explains that the efficient cause is the agent or force immediately responsible for bringing this matter and that form together in the production of the thing.
- Explains that aristotle's logic reflects a distinction in the way reality is structured, and the basic way that we view reality.
- Analyzes how aristotle utilized the concept of matter and form in an entirely new way.
- Opines that aristotle's doctrine of the four causes is easily misunderstood. he drew from the attempts of his predecessors and learned from their mistakes.
- Explains that the final cause is the end or purpose for which a thing exists, and the various goals or ends that are sought along the way are secondary causes.
- Explains how aristotle distinguishes between two types of potentiality, namely substance and motion.
- Analyzes how aristotle distinguishes between necessity-as-compulsion and simple necessity. he explains the possibility of enduring substances that endure through time by distinguishing potentiality and actuality.
- Explains that aristotle viewed ethics as an attempt to find out our chief end or highest good. he believed that happiness must be based on human nature and begin from personal experience.
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- Essay On The Four Causeargumentative essayIn a world that is constantly changing, Aristotle was posed the question of how things could remain the same or permanent, how exactly they were changing, and how we could have knowledge of it all. In order to explain, Aristotle viewed objects in terms of form and matter. Every object is comprised of specific materials organized in a certain fashion. This material composition is their matter. The way the materials are arranged is their form. During the process of change, whether that is natural or artificial, the matter of the object remains the same, while the form exhibits the actual change, making the object what it is. It is by way of forms, that we are able to identify objects fo...
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how aristotle's final cause plays the role of the arche in creation and obliteration of all things in the world.
- Explains how aristotle viewed objects in terms of form and matter. the form exhibits the actual change, making the object what it is.
- Explains how aristotle theorized the four causes: material, formal, efficient, and final. philosophers have "lisped" around the first three causes, but his fascination was entirely with the final cause.
- Explains how the four causes take course, and the understanding between natural and artificial production, by describing how an artisan produces a table.
- Explains how an acorn develops into an oak tree. the formal cause is the structural organization, and the efficient cause, the tree that produced it.
- Explains how aristotle viewed natural and artificial or artistic processes as complements to one another. nature is an internal final cause, whereas art (artificial) constitutes external final causes.
- Concludes that aristotle's final cause appears to be very logical in terms of significance in serving as the arche of all things.
783 wordsRead More - Virtue Friendship In C. S. Lewis's The Nicomachean Ethicsanalytical essayAristotle regards Virtue Friendship as perfect. He does not comment on the potential negatives, whereas Lewis more realistically presents possible dangers of his highest form of friendship. Lewis believes that the birth of friendship proper from companionship reveals friendship’s dark and idolatrous side. Lewis comments on the sense of inclusiveness between friends that can create an “us/them” tension that can be potentially dangerous. He believes there is danger in the sense that a partial indifference or deafness to the voices of the outside world may develop and morph into dangerous perversions of
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how aristotle presents his view of the mutual desire for good in others, or friendship in his work, the nicomachean ethics.
- Compares aristotle's view of imperfect pleasure friendships and use-friendships to lewis' notion of companionship, which aims to satisfy a biological need.
- Analyzes how aristotle portrays three generalized characteristics of virtue friendships that are practical consequences of their perfection, all of which are related to time.
- Explains that lewis thinks that companionship is the matrix of friendship, but he does not provide characteristics related to the time in life when the best type of bond is formed.
- Analyzes how aristotle regards virtue friendship as perfect, while lewis more realistically presents possible dangers of his highest form of friendship.
- Explains that lewis presents three dangerous perversions of friendship as idolatrous/olympian friendship, titanic friendship and vulgarian friendships.
- Analyzes how lewis criticizes aristotle's view of friendship as the crown of life and the school of virtue. he believes that agape, or charity, is the ultimate ruling love.
- Analyzes how c.s. lewis aims to rehabilitate aristotle's view of friendship.
1032 wordsRead More - Purposiveness in Natureanalytical essay...ot completely have to abandon purposiveness. Modern scientists can offer many different levels of material existence, but all of them can still be called into question. The theory of natural selection relies on DNA. Some suggest DNA as the driving force of life forms, but what causes DNA to form as it does? If molecules are the fundamental unit then where did they get their form? Proper questioning would show the limit of strictly material explanations. There is a something that could answer these questions, but we have yet to find it. This was Aristotle’s chief concern. Christians credit it to God, Muslims to Allah, scientists grudgingly acknowledge that they do not know and are still searching, and philosophers still grapple with it to this day. Aristotle will remain relevant until one of these groups-maybe all of them working together- can answer his question.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how aristotle uses language to explain chance and spontaneity and the roles they play in nature. he rejects empedocles' proto-darwinian theory because it relies on chance as the driving force.
- Analyzes how aristotle's example of chance was a man going to the market to collect money, but he didn't. empedocles said that air moves in whatever direction it chances to.
- Explains that aristotle doesn't make these points for the sake of picking on ancient philosophers. he feels that our language developed as a fairly accurate way of describing the nature of reality.
- Analyzes how aristotle suggests necessity and empedocles' proto-darwinian idea. he rejects this idea because it is incompatible with his theory of nature's purposiveness.
- Analyzes how aristotle uses the connection between nature and art to explain mishaps in nature, like the man-faced ox.
- Analyzes how darwin's galapagos island finches had mutations, but their corruption allowed them to survive and adapt to their environments. descartes criticized aristotle for using language to support his ideas.
- Opines that aristotle was wrong about a limited number of animals and mutations not making significant contributions, but that wasn't the essence of his argument.
1619 wordsRead More - Difference Between Aristotle And Hylomorphismexplanatory essayPresented by Aristotle, Hylomorphism is a philosophical theory which examines the substance into matter and form. Generally, Hylomorphism is the philosophical theory mainly developed by Aristotle which is a form of reification which analyzes the substance onto matter and form. Before explaining the relation between Anthropic Hylomorphism and his logical Hylomorphism it is important first to define the term. The term of Hylomorphism has been extensively used with the technical terminology in the work of Aristotle. It is a conceptual framework which literally under lies all of his mature theories and philosophical work. The two notions which are fundamental features of this term or concept are the matter and form which have been developed in the form of a general; theory of causation and explanation which can easily be seen on the mature philosophical work of Aristotle.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that an unsound argument could be valid only if it takes a form that makes it impossible for the grounds to be true and the conclusion never being false. the key feature worth highlighting is the fact that soundness or validity of any statement represents the logical connection between the premises
- Explains that intension and extension are the two correlative terms in logical manner which reflects the reference between any underlined concept and term.
- Explains that aristotle's logical hylomorphism is a philosophical theory which examines the substance into matter and form.
- Explains that aristotle's definition of truth is based on metaphysics. it is the relational property which includes the characteristic relation and to some portion of reality.
861 wordsRead More - Friendship In Melvin In The Sixth Grade By Dana Johnsonanalytical essayOne of the things Aristotle discusses is the need to limit the number of friends we have. He states: “So the right course is perhaps not to seek to
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how aristotle discusses friendship and how we should go about them. in "melvin in the sixth grade" by dana johnson, we see the main character avery's struggle to find herself and find friendship.
- Analyzes how aristotle discusses the need to limit the number of friends we have. one sided friendships will not last because one person will always expect more from the other.
- Analyzes how the topic of friendship is applicable to our society today. it is highly valued to have a lot of friends on our accounts.
- Analyzes how the story "melvin in the sixth grade" features avery, who is trying to find where she belongs and who she can be friends with.
- Analyzes how avery and melvin had an interesting bond. they were outcasts because they were new to the school and were not like the other people in their town.
- Analyzes how aristotle argues that a happy man doesn't need friends, since they already have the good things of life. melvin is content with who he is and does not change to fit into the new school.
1396 wordsRead More - The idea of substance stems from the Latin word substansia, meaning “something that stands under or grounds things” (Robinson). Substance theorists believe in the necessity of a substance that is able to “stand under” the properties attributed to it. In Categories, Aristotle argued for the idea of a primary substance, which cannot be predicable to anything else (Robinson). Primary substances were “objects of predication” that could take on a number of contradictories; for example, they could shift from hot to cold. Without the substance, the properties would cease to exist (Robinson). Rene Descartes supported this idea, saying, “In general, no act or accident can exist without a substance for it to belong to.”
In this essay, the author
- Compares the substance theory and the bundle theory, arguing that the inclinations for a personal identity are natural but flawed.
- Argues that the substance theory lacks any real evidence for the existence of a substratum because it fails to have any true function.
- Explains that substance theorists believe in the necessity of a substance that is able to "stand under" the properties attributed to it.
- Argues that the self is nothing more than a bundle of properties. hume argued for this viewpoint through explanations rooted in the idea of perception.
- Argues that many philosophers have failed to find evidence that an enduring self, as described by the substance theory, actually exists.
- Argues that there are also arguments against bundle theory that must be considered. they argue that if an individual was simply a bundle of properties, then the self changes along with the bundle.
1014 wordsRead More - Essay On Aristotle On Friendshipopinionated essayAristotle pointed out that friendship is a thing most important in nowadays life, since without friends no one can survive. Friendship to be a necessity to live. Also he argued that friendship is a key to human happiness ,that our friends can inspire on us positively ,share their experience and help us when we need them. The most important fact for Aristotle is to have a real friendship , people have to spend lots of time together, became very close to each other.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that aristotle first describes friendship with the greek word philia, which is a broader definition than just friendship.
- Analyzes how aristotle argued that friendship is a necessity in today's life, since without friends no one can survive. friends can inspire on us positively, share their experience and help us when we need them.
- Explains aristotle's nicomachean ethics, which focuses on the three kinds of friendship one can have.
- Opines that friends should not be chooced because they can pay for expensive drinks or have a usefull connection or just be helpfull for them at any time of the day.
- Explains that virtual friendships exist through text, websites, and social media as opposed to human nature. aristotle described virtual context of the establishment of close friendship relations as psychologically impossible.
- Explains that for a relationship which defines veritable friendship, it is not enough to communicate online.
- Explains that friendship is important for everyday living and living the ethical life. today's society cannot imagine their life without media, telephones, and all different gadgets.
- Explains aristotle's view that virtual friendship is problematic because both sides have to be aware of the relationship and feel similar emotions for each other.
- Opines that it is easy to deceive people on the internet, since those who aspire to virtue would simply provide false information about themselves or others. social community sites allow friends to be selective as to the ‘when’, ‘how’ and ‘for how long’ aspects of the life.
- Explains that you can construct and highly controlled your virtual words and present it to all as you willing to. it is up to the person when he responds to his virtual friends.
- Opines that a successful marriage resembles aristotle's goodness and the perfect relationship. a real friend cannot be compared with an unreal one.
- Opines that aristotle's "nicomachean ethics" was an enormously clever philosopher who can look deep in the future and forcast to everybody about "unreal friends".
- Explains that friendship is irrespective of religion, creed, colour, language, and geographical boundaries with the emergence of various social networks.
- Concludes that for aristotle traditional virtual friendship of the is simply and psychologically impossible, as it is not involved real life interaction and communication face to face by two partners.
1100 wordsRead More - The writer who most directly addresses Aristotle’s assessment on friendship is Cicero in his Laelius: on Friendship. Quite bitingly, he begins with Laelius remarking that he does not claim to be like the Greeks “who claim the ability to deal with any subject you care to set before them, without the slightest preparation.” In fact, the whole presentation is in contrast with the didactic manner that Aristotle uses. Laelius, throughout the work, claims his lack of expertise in the subject, which is in stark contrast of Aristotle who assumed knowledge in the subject.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how aristotle, cicero, montaigne and emerson discuss the importance of male friendship, and all four characters make statements about the superiority of friendship above other associations.
- Analyzes how aristotle uses a categorical approach to friendship by making strict delineations and then using examples. he argues that friendship must be between similarly virtuous men of equal standing.
- Analyzes how cicero addresses aristotle's assessment on friendship in his laelius: on friendship.
- Analyzes how cicero diverges from aristotle's style, but adopts many of his maxims. he argues that friendship is only possible between good men who are similar and equal to each other.
- Analyzes how cicero disagrees with aristotle's interpretation of the benefits that a friendship entails. he asserts that the primary basis of friendship must still be founded upon without "any calculation of profit."
- Analyzes how cicero directly contests aristotle's ascribing a sacred nature to friendship by using famous historical examples.
- Analyzes how montaigne uses the works of cicero and aristotle to create his ideas on friendship.
- Analyzes how montaigne examines cicero and aristotle's thinking of friendship as something truly powerful.
- Analyzes how emerson's writings on friendship do not deal with the other writers but are more musings of his own. he views friendship in a somewhat solipsistic point of view.
- Analyzes how emerson's writings indicate that he takes a more individual perspective on friendship. he rhapsodizes about friendship, but takes an opinion of friendship based on his lonely life.
- Analyzes how aristotle, cicero, montaigne, and emerson's views on friendship exemplify the cultural values of the writers.
1403 wordsRead More - True Friendship Essayopinionated essayFor example, when we have a job in a firm, we need not only do our jobs perfectly, but also need get along well with our colleagues and boss in order to avoid some troubles. Some people might say that definitely are not true friends, but I believe that as long as we manage these with care, that would be the true friendship. These friendships will help us and benefit us a lot, but they are not like the normal friendship we got, it will take more substance compared with the normal one. Anyway, we need them all in our life. Anais Nin had said “Each friend represents a world in US, a world possibly not born until they arrive, and it is only by this meeting that a new world is born.” I am convinced that friendship in any situation is important, even though sometimes we have controversy about
In this essay, the author
- Opines that the definition of true friends is not as easy as knowing people around us in specific occasions, but they should make some changes in our lives.
- Explains that people met in planned or unexpected situations, and communicated and spent time with each other. when people become a part of their lives, they are already their friends.
- Explains that people need to communicate smoothly without any small arguments, such as conflicts about their hobbies, altitude about lives and values.
- Opines that good friends can be a guide to their lives. they share everything with each other, whether it is happy or not.
- Opines that people should always experience different "tests" with their friends so that they will see their true personalities.
- Opines that friendship in any situation is important, even though sometimes we have controversy about it.
- Opines that friendship is a necessary part of our lives and that we need to have connections with society in order to survive and live better.
1139 wordsRead More - Summary Of Friendship According To Lewisanalytical essayAccording to Lewis, “the first and most obvious answer is that few value it because few experience it” (58). There is a chance that someone will go through life without having any friends outside a marriage or family. It is a decision that is made between both people who are involved in the relationship. Lewis points out on page 58 that “without Eros not of us would have been begotten and without Affection none of us would have been reared; but we can live and breed without Friendship” (58). This can be considered the medieval and ancient worlds on which friendship
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how lewis argues that the ancient and modern worlds think and evaluate friendship very differently.
198 wordsRead More