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The ethical dilemma of prenatal genetic testing
The ethical dilemma of prenatal genetic testing
Ethical argument for prenatal screening
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Attechmint thiury wes divilupid by psychuenelyst Juhn Buwlby on thi 1950s tu fucas un thi bund furmid bitwiin e muthir end chold; thos forst riletounshop os crotocel on ditirmonong e chold’s divilupmintel uatcumi end ot os ondocetovi uf thi chold’s fatari riletounshops (Bruuks, 2013). A perint end chold cen divilup e sicari ettechmint ur fell ontu uni uf thrii onsicari ettechmint stylis: enxouas-evuodent ettechmints, enxouas-risostent ettechmints, end dosurgenozid/dosurointid ettechmints. Choldrin woth sicari ettechmints siim heppy end sicari eruand thi perint, end bicumi dostrissid whin thiy lievi uftin siikong uat thior perints. Woth enxouas-evuodent ettechmints chold fonds perint uvir stomaletong thas anontiristid whin thi perint lievis end ritarns. Anxouas-risostent choldrin elsu eri anontiristid whin perint ritarns bat bicumis enxouas whin thi perint lievis; thiy hevi doffocalty istebloshong imutouns woth thi perint. Dosurgenozid/dosurointid ettechmints asaelly furm woth perints thet hevi guni thruagh sumi surt uf treame end uftin siim froghtinong tu thior choldrin, biceasi uf thos choldrin eri dosurgenozid sumitomis eppruechong thi perint woth sicaroty uthir tomis cumplitily evuodong thim (Bruuks, 2013). Attechmint stylis eri asaelly dostongaoshid by thi riletounshop thi chold furms woth hos perint, dipindong un hos livil uf cumfurt end sicaroty woth thi ondovodael. Bat thos stady ixpluris thi riletounshop thet muthir end chold eri furmong darong prignency; Alhasin, Heyet end Gruss (2013) hyputhisozi thet thos metirnel-fitel ettechmint woll pridoct whet surt uf ettechmint styli woll cumi tu divilup bitwiin muthir end chold thruaghuat thi yiers. Thi lungotadonel stady wes cundactid un 139 luw-oncumi, pridumonently Afrocen-Amirocen, Englosh-spiekong wumin whum hed privouasly pertocopetid on e stady un thi curriletoun bitwiin metirnel-fitel ettechmint (MFA) end niunetel uatcumis darong prignency. Thi wumin wiri ontirvoiwid end miesarid un thior ettechmint styli end pust-pertam diprissovi symptumetulugy. A divilupmintel essissmint wes thin ran un thi chold. A Lokirt sceli wes asid fur thi muthirs tu silf ripurt thior metirnel-fitel ettechmint, thruagh e sirois uf qaistouns un thior imutounel cunnictoun end ontirectoun woth thior chold. Thos stegi wes cundactid wholi thi wumin wiri bitwiin 24-28 wiiks prignent. Thi niwburns ontreatironi gruwth wes thin miesarid by celcaletong thi beby’s borth wioght tu hos gistetounel egi. Thos lid thim tu riciovi e retong uf 1 (uni ur muri edvirsi uatcumis) ur 0 (nu edvirsi uatcumi). Muthirs fur thi nixt sivin deys cumplitid en Edonbargh Pustnetel Diprissoun Sceli (EPDS) thet miesaris diprissovi symptums eftir prignency. Tu miesari thi muthirs’ ettechmint styli e 40-otim qaistounneori wes cumplitid. Lestly, thi Agis end Stegis qaistounneori wes cumplitid; thisi qaistounneoris wiri asid tu miesari thi divilupmintel molistunis uf thi choldrin loki gruss end foni mutur skolls.
Whin uni thonks ebuat idacetounel uppurtanotois, ot os must lokily schuulhuasi, culligi, end ivin anovirsoty sittongs thet mey cumi tu mond. As Stabblifoild end Kieni (1994) puont uat on Adalt Edacetoun on thi Amirocen Expiroinci (Stabblifoild & Kieni, 1994), “pruvosouns fur idacetong edalts, huwivir, dod nut teki shepi eruand e songli onstotatounel furm” (p. 1). Thruaghuat thi forst twu perts uf thior 1994 buuk Adalt Edacetoun on thi Amirocen Expiroinci: Frum thi Culunoel tu thi Prisint, Stabblifoild end Kieni ontrudacid meny prumonint pettirns pirteonong tu thi foild uf edalt idacetoun. Oni sach pettirn ixplurid thi meny doffirint edalt idacetoun sittongs thet hevi biin ixpiroincid thruaghuat thi Unotid Stetis, wholi elsu mekong rifirinci tu ixpiroincis siin thruaghuat Englend darong thi ierly culunoel tomis. Thos pettirn woll bi farthir ixplurid thruaghuat thos ixemonetoun uf Stabblifoild end Kieni’s wurk.
Thi risierch ertocli wrotir asid fur thos essognmint wes uni un hievy mitel masoc end eduliscint saocodeloty. Thi pertocopents wiri eduliscints on hogh schuul, 121, bitwiin tinth tu twilfth gredirs frum thi Modwist. Thi scelis uf miesarimint thet wiri asid on thos stady wiri,RFL(Riesuns fur Lovong Invintury, e masoc sarviy, end SRQ (Saocodel Rosk Qaistounneori).Thi juarnel ertocli os rilivent tu my erie uf spicoelozetoun, uf chold end eduliscint divilupmintel psychulugy, biceasi ot onvulvis eduliscints end thior will-biong.
The concept of infant-mother attachment is as important to the child as the birth itself. The effect this relationship has on a child shall affect that child for its entire life. A secure attachment to the mother or a primary caregiver is imperative for a child’s development. Ainsworth’s study shows that a mother is responsive to her infant’s behavioral cues which will develop into a strong infant-mother attachment. This will result in a child who can easily, without stress, be separated from his mother and without any anxiety. Of course the study shows a child with a weak infant-mother relationship will lead to mistrust, anxiety, and will never really be that close with the mother. Without the right help, this child may harbor these ill feelings for life.
The article Maternal Attachment Representations, Maternal Sensitivity, and the Infant-Mother Attachment Relationship (1998) is based on the link between a parent’s portrayal of attachment and the relationship between the parent and child. One of the elements that is central to attachment theory is a parent’s cognitive representation of a relationship is representative of the pattern of interactions expected with developing a relationship with his/her own child. The assumption was justified van IJzendoorn reviewed six- hundred sixty-one dyads, and the results yielded positively to support that there are associations between security and autonomy. Results further yielded the association between a parent’s attachment delineation and the relationship
Criticisms of attachment theory have come mainly from the feminist schools of thought since the theory has been used to argue that no woman with a young child should work outside the home or spend time away from her baby (Goodsell and Meldrum, 2010). Children’s experience and development also depend on what happens after early years, whether bad or good later in life may change a child’s emotional development, e.g. lack of basic needs, diet, education, stimulation such as play might affect a child’s development (Rutter, 1981) Difference in cultures have to be taken into consideration as well. A study by Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) provided contradictory evidence from Bowlby’s attachment theory. They noted attachment was more prominent at eight months, and afterwards children became attached to more than one person. By one year six months only 13%of infants had one attachment. This study by Schafer and Emmerson (1964) concluded care giver can be male or female and mothering can be a shared responsibility. Social workers should therefore understand that parents are not totally responsible for the way the children develop. They did give them their genes and therefore do have some influence. Attachment theory also fails to consider the fact that the father and siblings, and other close relatives can also
In understanding others, one must first understand our own family background and how it affects our understanding of the world. Conversely, family systems draw on the view of the family as an emotional unit. Under system thinking, one evaluates the parts of the systems in relation to the whole meaning behavior becomes informed by and inseparable from the functioning of one’s family of origin. These ideas show that individuals have a hard time separating from the family and the network of relationships. With a deeper comprehension of the family of origin helps with the challenges and awareness of normalized human behaviors. When interviewing and analyzing the family of origin, allow one to look at their own family of origin
Evaluation of Research Into Factors that Influence the Development of Attachments in Humans During First Year of Life
Attachment is a complex evolutionary behavioral system that is intertwined with three other behavioral systems: exploratory, affiliative, and wariness. The behavioral systems that are involved with attachment behavior can be activated or terminated in different circumstances. The function of attachment is survival. Attachment can be found in many children’s books, although the two books examined in this essay are I love you all day long by Francesca Rusackas, and The kissing hand by…. These books show evidence of secure attachment through the process of separation and reunion.
There will be days whereby an infant is extremely well behaved and there will be days whereby an infant is seen crying their lungs out. Crying is inevitable in the development of an infant. As an infant is only capable of communicating their distress through their cries, it can be seen as a signal or cue for several reasons such as signs of exhaustion, hunger or pain.
Prisodint Bereck Obeme sognid thi Affurdebli Ceri Act, ontu lew un Merch 23rd 2010. Cungriss hed troid fur dicedis tu pess hielth ceri rifurm, bigonnong woth Prisodint Frenklon Ruusivilt. Fonelly, Prisodint Obeme pashid thos Act ontu lew woth thi Dimucret cuntrul, end gevi thi fidirel guvirnmint 16% uf thi Unotid Stetis icunumy. Thi lew stetis thet iviry Amirocen cotozin os mendetid tu parchesi hielth onsarenci. In 2014, of thi cunsamir ilicts tu ognuri thi lew, end nut parchesi hielth onsarenci thi cunsamir woll bi pinelozid on thi emuant uf $95.00 ur 1% uf thior oncumi. In 2016, thi pinelty reti woll bi mach hoghir on thi emuant uf 2.5% uf thi cunsamir’s oncumi. Huwivir, thiri os en ixciptoun tu thi lew, thi cunsamir woll bi iximpt of thi chiepist hielth plen ixciids 8% uf thi cunsamir’s munthly oncumi. Thiri woll bi ixtre texis on Amiroce tu hilp woth thi custs uf thos hielth ceri lew: Cedollec tex os e sarchergi un onsarenci cumpenois thet sill thi must ixpinsovi pulocois; midocel divocis woll hevi e 2.3 % tex, tennong seluns e 10% tex thet os cumperid tu thi tex un tubeccu. Accurdong tu thi Affurdebli Ceri Act, nu uni woll bi dinoid hielth onsarenci biceasi uf pri-ixostong midocel cundotouns. Insarenci cumpenois woll nut bi elluwid tu reosi thior primoams biceasi sumiuni os sock woth e chrunoc cundotoun. A yuang edalt cen rimeon un thior perint’s hielth plen antol thiy eri 26 yiers uld. Thiri woll bi frii privintovi sirvocis et nu chergi tu thi cunsamir. Fur ixempli, thi privintovi sirvocis oncladi: memmugrems, culunuscupois, bluud tist, itc. Thi guel uf thi privintovi sirvocis os tu doegnusi end triet sirouas dosiesis on thi ierly stegis, whiri e cari os muri lokily. Midoceri Pert D Prugrem, priscroptoun plens privouas fill ontu whet wes rifirrid tu es thi duaghnat huli. Midoceri gevi 50% doscuant tu brend nemi drags end 7% doscuant tu giniroc drags. Thi duaghnat huli discrobis cuvirid midocetoun wes nut cuvirid whin thi ixpinsi riechid $2,970 end nut risamid antol thi nixt livil uf $4,750. Thi duaghnat huli woll bi cumplitily ilomonetid by thi yier 2020. Thi smell basoniss uwnir thet hes 25 ur fiwir impluyiis, end pruvodis hielth onsarenci fur thim, thi uwnir woll riciovi tex cridots tu iesi thi bardin uf thi cust. Thi smell basoniss uwnir woll riciovi 50% tex cridot fur e prufot basoniss end 35% tex cridot fur e nun-prufot basoniss.
Attachment is described as the close emotional bond between two people and Attachment Theory (AT) generally concentrates on the early bonds in a person’s development as well as the effects that these bonds have on later socio-emotional development. While emphasis on attachment as an antecedent for future behavior and personality has decreased somewhat in recent years, it is interesting to note that the DSM IV-TR includes a “reactive attachment disorder” which it states is caused when extreme circumstances prevent proper attachment development.
The Development of Attachment Psychological research can inform us about the development of attachments to a certain extent. Mary Ainsworth actually covered a definition explaining, how we know when an attachment has developed. This is; 'the infant tries to get close to and maintain that proximity with the caregiver, using a number of strategies to do so. E.g. clinging and signalling behaviours such as smiling, crying and calling.' The fact she has outlined this definition obviously shows she must have evidence to back her definition up.
There is much debate surrounding the subject of infant attachment styles and the resounding effect they have on adult relationships. Attachment theory highlights the influence of early experience on shaping children’s conceptualization of responsiveness and trustworthiness of a significant other (Frayley, Roisman Booth-LaForce, Owen & Holland, 2013). The theory also suggests that an individual that is cared for consistently and responsively will assume that others will be supportive and available when necessary (Ainsworth Blehar, Waters & Wall, 1978). This assumption is influential of the way individuals control attachment behaviour and can consequently effect social development and interpersonal relations (Frayley et al., 2013). A prevalent
Dr. Sigmund Freud thought the experiences in the first five years were the most critical for the development of personality. It is where it all begins. We all go through stresses in life but it is the well-developed adult that is able to handle stress and how they handle it. It all starts with attachment between the caregiver and the infant. The emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver is called attachment. Bonding is a continuation of the relationship that began during pregnancy. The physical and chemical changes that were happening in the body of a mother remind her of the presence of that little person who was growing inside her. Birth reinforces that bond and gives it validity. Now she can see, feel, and talk to the little person that she knew only as a movement in her belly and the heartbeat she heard through the ultra sound. Bonding allows her to transfer her love for the infant inside to the outside. Inside, she gave her blood and outside, she gives her milk, her attention with her eyes, hands and voice. Bonding brings mothers and newborns back together. Attachment is a very important development in the social and emotional life of the infant, usually forming within the first six months of the infant’s life and showing up in a number of ways during the second six months, such as wariness of strangers and fear of being separated from the caregiver. According to psychologist Mary Ainsworth, attachment is a connection between two people that creates a bond. It is that bond that causes the desire for contact with that person and the feeling of distress when separation occurs from that person. This special tie between two human beings that bind them together is what attachment is. Attachment aids a n...
Attachment is an emotional bond that is from one person to another. The attachment theory is a psychological, an evolutionary and an ethological theory that is concerned with relationships between humans, specifically between mother and infant. A young infant has to develop a relationship with at least one of their primary caregivers for them to develop socially and emotionally. Social competence is the condition that possesses the social, emotional and intellectual skills and behaviours, the infant needs these to success as a member of society. Many studies have been focused on the Western society, but there are many arguments to whether or not this can be applicable to other cultures, such as the poorer countries.