Neisseria gonorrhoeae, also know as gonococcus, is a gram-negative, diplococcus, nonmotile, non-spore forming, aerobe that is spread through sexual contact2. It is a human pathogen that is spread directly from person-to-person, typically through mucous membranes1. Infection to a fetus through vertical transmission is possible1. This organism is relatively fragile leaving it extremely susceptible to temperature changes, drying, UV light, and other environmental stresses2. Neisseria gonorrhoeae possesses the many typical components of a gram-negative outer membrane such as proteins, phospholipids, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)2. However, neisserial LPS is often referred to as lipooligosaccharide (LOS) due to its highly branched basal oligosaccharide structure with the lack of repeating O-antigen subunits2. The LOS that Neisseria gonorrhoeae expresses helps play a role in the pathogenesis of this bacteria2.
The most common infection caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae is gonorrhea, also known as “the clap” 4. Gonorrhea is a common sexually transmitted infection that can occur in both males and females . The infection is spread through participation in unprotected sexual intercourse with infected individuals4. The infection is more commonly found in women, this is because women who have unprotected sex with infected males have a 50-60% chance of acquiring the infection, while men who have sex with infected females have only a 20% chance of acquiring the infection9. Transmission of disease occurs through the direct contact of exudates from the mucous membranes of infected individuals5. The bacteria then attach to and penetrate the simple columnar epithelium and produce inflammatory responses in the affected area. With the use of proper p...
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...roup of antibiotics as penicillin; therefore it works by interfering with the bacteria’s ability to form cell walls7. The cell wall of bacteria is essential for their survival, and with the help of ceftriaxone forming holes in the cell walls of bacteria, the number of bacteria begin to decrease also7. Lastly, azithromycin is a type of antimicrobial that also works by interfering with the bacteria’s abilities to form essential proteins for survival8. Due to the fact that antimicrobial resistance is slowly starting to increase for gonorrhea treatment, it is important for all individuals undergoing treatment to take antimicrobials efficiently, and ensure they take all of the medicine prescribed by their doctor8. There are no vaccines available for gonorrhea today, however if you take the proper precautions and treatments when necessary the bacteria can be controlled3.
Virulence Factors: The cell wall of Chlamydia has been characterized as gram negative with a notable difference: it lacks muramic acid that is found in the cell walls of most other bacteria. This makes Chlamydia resistant to _-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin, because such antibiotics disrupt the “typical” cell wall, which includes muramic acid. Being gram-negative, it also contains LPS, which helps cause damage to the host’s body(mainly due to the host’s immune response). Once inside the host, chlamydia bind sialic acid receptors, which are usually found in mucous-rich environments. Antigenic variation is ...
Bordetella pertussis is a highly communicable agent and is transmitted person-to-person via airborne droplets or direct contact with discharges from the respiratory mucous membranes of an infected person. This small, gram-negative coccobacillus is non-motile, aerobic and fastidious. B. pertussis colonizes the respiratory tract including the mouth, nose, throat and beginning of the lungs of young children worldwide. The bacteria bind to ciliated cells in the respiratory mucosa by producing adhesions. Filamentous hemagglutinin on the cell surface and pertussis toxin (Ptx) both help the bacteria in binding. Filamentous hemagglutinin binds to the galactose residues on the glycolipid of the ciliated cells. Ptx, in its cell-bound form, binds to the glycolipid lactosylceramide, which is also found on the ciliated cells. Ptx binds to the surface of phagocytes as well, causing phagocytosis of the bacteria. This mechanism may lead to enhanced survival as an intracellular parasite. Adding to its many purposes, Ptx deregulates the host cell adenylate cyclase activity. The A subunit of this AB toxin, affects the G protein responsible for inhibiting adenylate cyclase. This leads to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) creating detrimental metabolic changes in the host cells.
Studies have shown pertactin, a 69kDa non fimbrial outer membrane protein, facilitates attachment of the bacteria to ciliated respiratory cells. Experiments conducted on humans to test the role of pertactin have shown no significant effect except with the results from Bassinet (4). Furthermore, filamentous haemagglutinin confers infection by attaching to the host cells in the lower respiratory tract. It is about 2nm wide, and 50n...
Bacteria vaginosis is treated with antibiotic medications (CDC). Metronidazole is commonly used. Metronidazole treatment does not adversely affect lactobacilli so they are able to recolonize the vagina and reduce the risk of late-stage relapse (Catlin, 1992). The cephalosporins available in the late 1970s were not very active against G. vaginalis.
S. flexneri causes infection via bacterial penetration of the mucous membrane in the human colon. Humans are the only known reservoir to this pathogen (7). Following invasion of M cells and upon contact with the epithelial cells of the colon, S. flexneri releases Ipa proteins through a type three secretion system. Once inside the host cell, Ipa proteins activate small GTPases in the Rho family as well as c-src, a protooncogene, leading to cytoskeletal rearrangements. This alteration to the cytoskeleton allows the bacteria to be macropinocytosed by the host cell. Once inside the host, the pathogen colonizes the cytoplasm. IcsA, a bacterial surface protein, activates the host protein N-WASP and, in turn, stimulates actin assembly by host Arp 2/3. Thus, S. flexneri develops actin-based motility enabling the pathogen to become efficient at cell-to-cell spread and host cell cytoplasmic colonization. Infected cells become highly proinflammatory and secrete IL-8. IL-8 attracts neutrophils to the site of infection. The influx of neutrophils, chemokines and cytokines to the area damages the epithelial layer permeability and, in turn, advocates further S. flexneri invasion (6). Once initial invasion of S. flexneri occurs, the targeted epithelial cells require 45 minutes to 4 hours to mount an inflammatory response (8).
...ell wall synthesis (8). Individuals who are allergic to Penicillin can be treated with alternative oral antibiotics such as Tetracycline or Doxycycline (3). These antibiotics work by inhibiting protein synthesis (8). During the course of treatment the individual should abstain from sexual contact with their partner until there are no sign and symptoms of the disease or confirmation of a negative blood work. Also individuals should be annually tested and receive necessary treatment if needed to reduce the risk of infecting others (6). Syphilis can be prevented in many ways. First and foremost is by being in a mutually monogamous relationship, the correct use of latex condoms if you are not in a monogamous relationship, also by providing education about the damages the disease can cause and how it can be prevented by not spreading the disease with one another (6).
Being a gram-negative bacterium, L. pneumophila has lipopolysaccharides (LPS) that act as endotoxin within a human host. The presence of a flagella is thought to mediate adherence to human lung cells, thereby causing infection, since flagella-less strains do not cause disease. Once attached to human cells, the organism is engulfed by a macrophage where is utilizes the internal environment to multiply.
There are two tests that doctors can use to detect gonorrhea, urine test or a swab of the affected area. The urine test can identify a disease, even when there are no signs or symptoms displayed. There is a swab test of the affected area, sometimes there are multiple test done to detect which sexually transmitted disease is present, home testing is available. When you have a home test done it is sent off to a lab to get analyzed and identify what is present. Gonorrhea is treated by several kinds of antibiotics, which are ceftriaxone, azithromycin, and doxycycline. The treatment is used for people who have tested positive for gonorrhea or somebody that had intercourse with someone that was diagnosed. When newborns are treated for gonorrhea, they are given medication in their eye. To prevent gonorrhea from returning don’t have sexual intercourse with someone that has or had gonorrhea until they get tested and it comes back
Gonorrhea Gonorrhea is a curable, bacterial, sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae (a member of the family Neisseriaceae). Bacteria are introduced during sexual contact. These bacteria can infect the genital tract, the mouth, and the rectum. It attacks the urethra in males, the cervix in females, and the throat. The majority of the organisms belonging to this family are non-pathogenic or commensals, however, gonorrhea is always pathogenic.
There is little at face value that would alert an educated individual to the severity and the danger of Syphilis – the bacterium which causes syphilis, Treponema pallidum, appears as nothing more than a simple bacterium. The bacterium is spiral in shape, and is classified as Gram Negative (meaning that the bacterium lacks a thick layer of peptidoglycan in its cell wall). Syphilis infects it's victims through a limited number of ways – the most common way, however, is by entrance through chafed, cracked skin and through mucous membranes. Because of this, Syphilis is so effectively transmitted through sexual contact and sexual activity that it is primarily known as a Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI). However, Syphilis does not limit itself to only the aforementioned modes of transportation. The disease is also effectively transmitted through blood transfusions, not to mention the passing of Syphilis from mother to child in the womb during pregnancy (CDC 2007).
... really able to be spread but also prevented. There are different treatments that can stop the process of this infection that will help cure it and stop the spread. If you didn’t know, there are three main prescriptions that are used to help stop this. “Doxycycline 100 mg 2-3 times a day for 10-14 days, Zithromax (azithromycin) 1.0 gm a single dose, and Zithromax Z-pak (azithromycin) - 500mg on day 1, followed by 1 tab (250mg) once a day for 4 more days will help your situation” (Sexually Transmitted Disease Guide). After this process, make sure you go to your normal doctor of local for check ups. Keep in mind to finish the prescription given even if you feel like you are better. In conclusion, to prevent all of this mass destruction and chaos, wait until you and your partner is both checked out by your doctor to make sure the both of you are clean from anything.
Pathogens are a type of microorganism that spreads viral and bacterial diseases. These diseases when present in human blood and body fluids are known as blood borne pathogens, and can spread from one person to another. (Worcester polytechnic institute) The most serious types of blood borne diseases are the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), which can cause liver damage; and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which is responsible for causing AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). The blood borne pathogens can be spread when the blood or body fluids (semen, vaginal fluid, breast milk, and amniotic fluid) of an infected individual comes into contact with mucous membranes or an open sore or cut on the skin of another person. Mucus membranes are located in the eyes, nose, mouth, and other areas as well. ("Bloodborne pathogens: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia") Two of the most common ways that pathogens are transmitted is through the exchange of fluids during sexual intercourse or by sharing infected IV needles. (Worcester polytechnic institute)
Since antibiotics, such as penicillin, became widely available in the 1940s, they have been called miracle drugs. They have been able to eliminate bacteria without significantly harming the other cells of the host. Now with each passing year, bacteria that are immune to antibiotics have become more and more common. This turn of events presents us with an alarming problem. Strains of bacteria that are resistant to all prescribed antibiotics are beginning to appear. As a result, diseases such as tuberculosis and penicillin-resistant gonorrhea are reemerging on a worldwide scale (1).
Frank Mars founded the third largest private company in the U.S in 1882. Mars incorporated has been voted 76th in top 100 best companies to work for in 2014. With global revenue of 33 billion in 2012 the company has established itself as one of the most successful family owned businesses of history. The previous year they were ranked 95th which indicates a steady climb up the rankings. The company originally specialized in making quality chocolate products; they have steadily evolved into a few specific different avenues. They currently produce 7 out of the top twenty chocolate snacks, their products are sold in more than 180 countries around the world and they make global annual sales of $80 billion. However as the company evolved they expanded their business to start making pet care, chewing gum products, confectionary, and food and drink products. The company says it does 200 million consumer transactions a day despite that extreme reach across the globe it is also one of the most company in the world. The owners are three multibillionaires who are all reportedly in the top 20 of richest of Americans. Mars is one of the premium companies to work for because of a number of factors. Their employee treatment is well known to be one of the most effective on the planet. This along with a multitude of effective leadership creates a wonderful work experience for all employees (Kaplan, 2013).
...1–4Gal1–3diNAcBac–structure of Neisseria gonorrhoeae pilin is assembled by PglB, PglA and PglE onto Und-P, flipped by PglF to periplasm and transferred by PglO on to the Ser residue of pilin [21]. In an alternative pathway, PglH adds a Glc rather than two Gal residues to diNAcBac. In OST-independent O-glycosylation, glycosyltransferases add monosaccharides to proteins in the cytoplasm and the resulted glycosylated proteins are transported to the outer membrane or secreted by the flagellum [22].