The Agreement between Leibniz’s Monadology and Observed Phenomena
While reading Gottfried Leibniz's "Monadology," I was struck by the way his explanation of the structure of the physical world agrees with the phenomena observed in science, mathematics and nature.
I will begin by showing the agreement between Leibniz and science. Second, I will show his agreement with mathematics. Lastly, and through use of the previous two arguments, I will show Leibniz's agreement with observations of nature.
Throughout the history of science, investigations of physical objects have shown them to be divisible into portions of ever decreasing size. Biologists discovered that living organisms are made up of cells. They then discovered that cells contain organelles. Through the years the finally came to the finding that atoms are the final building blocks of living creatures. Chemists and physicists discovered that all matter is composed of atoms. Atoms, in turn, were shown to be composed of a positively charged nucleus and a negatively charged shell. The nucleus was then shown to be made of protons and neutrons. The negatively charged shell was shown to be composed of electrons. These small, seemingly indivisible, particles were more recently discovered to be composed of even smaller particles, quarks and leptons. These newly discovered particles each have many varieties, or "flavors." Along with these tiny bits of matter are other particles as well: photons, muons, mesons, bosons, gluons, etc... Even these specks have subtypes and varieties. As if this wasn't enough, quarks and leptons are suspected to have even smaller components. "Where does it all end?" an exasperated reader might ask. Most physicists will admit that they don't ...
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...ve in common: dualism and unity at the same time. This may seem like a contradiction but it is demonstrated easily with an example: light and dark are dual, that is they are separate and opposing, but they are also unified in that they cannot exist without each other. Light isn't light without dark and vice versa. Only by comparison with the other can there be a conception of both. There are numerous examples of this from human experience: night and day, matter and void, good and evil, heat and cold, order and chaos, infinite divisibility and self-similarity. I feel that this is the essence of the universe, an opposition and togetherness at the same time.
This is why I feel Leibniz had a good grasp of what is going on. He understood, at least in part, these contradictions and agreements. Although he may not have been totally right, he did have a good beginning.
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First we will consider the assigned baseball scenario under Leibniz’s system of metaphysics. In the baseball scenario, the aggregate of the player, bat, pitch, swing and all the other substances in the universe are one and all contingent. There are other possible things, to be sure; but there are also other possible universes that could have existed but did not. The totality of contingent things, the bat, the player, etc., themselves do not explain themselves. Here Leibniz involves the principle of reason; “there can be found no fact that is true or existent, or any true proposition, without there being a sufficient reason for its being so and not otherwise.” There must be, Leibniz insists, something outside the totality of contingent things (baseball games) which explains them, something which is itself necessary and therefore requires no explanation other than itself.
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“We perceive things in three ways: through experience, through reasoning, and through a representation.” (Leibniz, Gottfried and Robert C. Sleigh, Jr. (Translator). Confessio Philosophi. 1671–1678). Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz learned and taught by this principle. Known as the last “universal genius”, Leibniz made astounding leaps in fields of study such as mathematics, metaphysics, geology, logic and philosophy, along with many others. Leibniz was highly respected by many and even though their views did not coincide they could not help being amazed by his achievements. (Brandon C. Look, 2007) “When one compares the talents one has with those of a Leibniz, one is tempted to throw away one's books and go die quietly in the dark of some forgotten corner.” (Oeuvres complètes, vol. 7, p. 678).
if someone was a witch or not, they would tie the woman onto a ducking
to show the genre of the film and how it is meant to be perceived. All
Metaphysics is the search for an ultimate principle by which all real things and relations are ordered. It formulates fundamental statements about existence and change. A reversible (absolute) causality is thought to be the ultimate of reality. It is argued that a real (causal) process relating changes of any nature (physical, mental) and any sort (quantitative, qualitative, and substantial) reverses the order of its agency (action, influence, operation, producing): real causation must run in the opposite direction, or change to the opposite effect. A reversible process is a cyclical process, and all cyclical processes are reversible. The world is becoming active because it produces reversible processes; reversible processes organize the world. The world is the totality of interrelated cyclic processes occurring with all kinds of agents (objects, substances, and things).
A significant aspect in Leibniz’s Monadology and Discourse on Metaphysics, is his conception of simple substance and interaction. Leibniz assigns the term Monad to all simple substances. Monads are beings without parts, for which “neither extension, nor shape, nor divisibility is possible” (M3). Monads can exist as determined, necessary, finite, or infinite beings. For Leibniz, God exists as the only one necessary and infinite Monad, who is the sole causer of the infinity many determined, independent and finite Monads in the universe, all of which are contingent on God for their existence (D14). Leibniz claimed that all created Monads “have within them a certain perfection; there is a kind of self sufficiency which makes them the source of their own internal actions” (M18). Some simple substances, however, are also endowed with the qualities of perception that is distinct and accompanied by memory; these types of Monads are called Souls, and example of which is the human mind (D12; M19). These finite Monads are considered independent, even though they are dependent on God, because each exists as a separate contained universe, which cannot interact with other finite Monads or the external world. Interaction, which is defined as a transposition of parts, or matter being exchanged and arranged, cannot occur between the consciousness of the Monad and the physical external world, because minds do not have parts with which to interact with the extended and divisible parts of body.
When a play is presented on film, the director takes the script, and with poetic license, interprets it. A film not only contains the actual words of the author (in this case Shakespeare), but it includes action, acting, and cinematographic techniques; the three are used to better portray the author’s story. Using these elements, the director’s interpretation of the plot is reinforced. The film provides symbolic images and a visual interpretation, hence Shakespeare’s play “Macbeth” is better understood by the viewers.
the same basic materials, including the same beliefs and the same values, the same EVERYTHING. And together it all appears to be one "reality" (Barry Alfonso, 6)."
The definition of the word genre is “a category of artistic composition, as in music or literature, characterized by similarities in form, style or subject matter” (Merriam Webster). These categories are what is used to classify music into different genres. The 5 most popular genres of music include heavy metal, rock n' roll, alternative, hard rock, and classical.
Since its inception, science relied on predictability and order. The true beauty of science was its uncanny ability to find patterns and regularity in seemingly random systems. For centuries the human mind as easily grasped and mastered the concepts of linearity. Physics illustrated the magnificent order to which the natural world obeyed. If there is a God he is indeed mathematical. Until the 19th century Physics explained the processes of the natural world successfully, for the most part. There were still many facets of the universe that were an enigma to physicists. Mathematicians could indeed illustrate patterns in nature but there were many aspects of Mother Nature that remained a mystery to Physicists and Mathematicians alike. Mathematics is an integral part of physics. It provides an order and a guide to thinking; it shows the relationship between many physical phenomenons. The error in mathematics until that point was linearity. “Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.” - Benoit Mandlebrot. Was it not beyond reason that a process, which is dictated by that regularity, could master a world that shows almost no predictability whatsoever? A new science and a new kind of mathematics were developed that could show the universe’s idiosyncrasies. This new amalgam of mathematics and physics takes the order of linearity and shows how it relates to the unpredictability of the world around us. It is called Chaos Theory.
In The Monadology, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz creates a metaphysical system that attempts to explain the nature of the material world. Leibniz does not believe that the material world can be explained using mathematics and other scientific principals, so he develops a rational theory to give him the causal explanation that he needs. This system Leibniz creates, appeals to the sufficient reason that is God and the pre-established harmony of the monads that make up the material world. Leibniz sets out to prove that his system has a substantial account of freedom, however, the principles and the rationalization he defaults to makes freedom almost impossible. Therefore, Leibniz’s metaphysical system does not account for freedom.
According to Dictionary.com, genre is defined as “a class or category of artistic endeavor having a particular form, content, technique.” Genre is a tool used to generate a clear idea of what a movie will be about. It helps producers create an outline to engage their target audience and ensure similarities in the narrative elements. In the reading by Rick Altman he says, “Stephen Neale expresses the commonly held opinion when he says that ‘each new genre film constitutes an addition to an existing generic corpus and involves a selection from the repertoire of generic elements available at any one point in time’” (Altman 1999). This quote describes exactly what the genre romantic comedies consist of. The genre stems from two obvious sources, romance films and comedy films, and it takes elements from each genre to create a whole new spin on films. Romantic comedies are light-hearted, humorous, and dramatic movies with the portrayal that “true love” comes from human relationships in an ordinary life. This genre has been popular to audiences from the early years of film making because it allows people to believe that relationships and situations depicted in these movies could happen to them. It is also popular for producers because of the ability to construct a film that is known to make a hit at the box offices on a low budget. Rick Altman says, “Current understanding of genre depends on the assumption that generic terms and concepts are few, neat, and clear” (Altman 1999). The basic structure of these films first portrays the unfulfilled desire of love in the lives of the main characters, next comes a situation that they are put in that provides a chance for potential romance, and then though several obstacles the protagonist realiz...
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