Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
May 11, 1752-January 22, 1840
Born in Gotha, Germany in 1752, Blumenbach went on to Jena to study medicine. He completed his doctoral training at Gottingen in 1775. Just a year later, he was appointed as an extraordinary professor of medicine. His study of the history of man showing the value of using comparative anatomy and his classification of the five varieties of man were two important contributions made by Blumenbach (1911 Edition). He wasted no time in becoming one of the most influential members of the fields of comparative anatomy, zoology, physiology, anthropology, and craniology, in fact, Blumenbach is considered to be the founder of anthropology as well as craniology. In his construction of this new field of physical anthropology, he used the methods of natural historians, and applied those methods to the human species (Keith 106). Objectifying the study of mankind, Blumenbach collected numerous specimens from various races. Skulls, skin, hair and pictures were among the items collected. From each item, the location, as well as race of the item, was known and recorded. Prior to Blumenbach's systematized assortment of specimens, the only collections "consisted of miscellaneous oddities preserved in the 'cabinets' of noble houses, for the idle amusement of the curious." (Keith, 106). Blumenbach' s more complete collection allowed intensive study into the racial history of mankind, which is just what he wanted to do. Blumenbach was also the first to study the actual form of skulls (Retzius 283).
The book, On the Natural Variety of Mankind, was Blumenbach's main contribution to the field of anthropology and comparative anatomy. In this book he discusses the chief varieties of mankind, the causes of degeneration, the differences between man and other animals, the differences, and causes of differences, between varieties of man, and various other issues related to the existing varieties of the species of man. Blumenbach asserts that climate is an important contributing factor in racial differences. In fact, he states specifically, "climate is the principal cause of the racial face," (Blumenbach 229). Diet and customs were also important contributions, according to Blumenbach. He even went so far as to say that the Ethiopians’ flattened facial features were caused by the practice of mothers carrying their infants on their backs while working, and thus pressing the infants face into the mothers’ backs (Schiebinger 393).
Throughout history race has been a pivotal part in decision making. Since the first interaction of populations from different geographical regions, with physical differences, the assumption has been that these differences were fundamental. These physical differences, based mainly on the color of skin, have been classified as race. Over time physicians have tried to pinpoint certain characteristics that are more prominent in one race than another, in order to prove race and that there are subspecies of humans. One of the first examples of this is Johann Blumenbach work “On the Natural Variety of Mankind”. In his work Blumenbach introduced five categories of race; caucasian. mongolian, malayan ethiopian, and american. These classifications revolved around not only skin color, but also physical morphology. Blumenbach supported this by using a collection of physical evidence, like the structure of the cranium, to support his thesis. This marked a shift in thinking of race in terms of geography to physical appearance. Published in 1775, Blumenbach’s dissertation started the scientific approach to finding
When Otto von Bismarck was recalled from Paris to become Minister-President of Prussia in 1862, German nationalism was already more than 40 years old. First apparent in the opposition to Napoleon´s occupation of the German states, national feeling grew into a movement after 1815. This feeling was encouraged by a growth of interest in German literature and music and by increased economic cooperation between the north German states. By 1848 it was strong enough to make the creation of a united Germany one of the main demands of the revolutionaries. Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian patriot who inherited the traditions of love of king, army and country from his family.
Gustav Stresemann Gustav Stresemann was given the job of German Foreign Minister during the six years commencing 1923. A foreign policy was needed. The German Nationalists needed to be given confidence in the Republic as it was not happy with the Republic's acceptance of the VersaillesTreat. Throughout the time of 1923 to 1929 Stresemann had certain choices to make which question whether he was acting as a 'Good German' or a 'Good European' There are arguments for both sides to the question.
Quantz was on of the first professional flute players in 18th century Europe. He began musical training under his uncle in 1708, and learned to play most of the string family as well as the oboe and the trumpet. After joining the Dresden town band, Quantz was offered a position as oboist in the Polish chapel of Augustus II, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. Quantz found little opportunity for advancement as an oboist, and turned to the flute in 1719.
He was never a president of the United States, nor did he lead any army in a battle. He had no talent in public speaking, preferring to write out his thoughts on paper and for them to be read aloud by others. Yet in his day he was certainly one of the most well known celebrities, beloved in both the United States and through most of Europe. He is Benjamin Franklin, and he has become a symbol of American civilization.
Biological advancements such as Darwinism and Mendelian genetics had a profound impact on the study of race in the scientific community. These new concepts eventually led some scientists to question the validity of traditional notions about race. The resulting debates continue even today. The idea of race, especially in citizens of this country, evokes strong feelings because of the enormous social implications associated with racial identity. The social connotations of racial categories have had a profound influence on the way scientists understand human variation. Early ideas of race were colored by these connotations, and they still play a critical role in the way we understand race today. This paper will explore, with an emphasis on historical context, the current debates over whether to continue to inlude race in scientific, and especially medical, studies.
2) Jablonski N. “The Evolution of Human Skin and Skin Color” Annual Reviews Anthropology 33 (2004) 585-623
In 1758 a Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnaeus established the classification system still in use for various forms of life. He listed four categories that he labeled as "varieties" of the human species. To each he attributed inherited biological as well as learned cultural characteristics. He described Homo European as light-skinned, blond, and governed by laws; Homo American was copper-colored and was regulated by customs; Homo Asiatic was sooty and dark-eyed and governed by opinions; Homo African was black and indolent and governed by impulse. We can in retrospect recognize the ethnocentric assumptions involved in these descriptions, which imply a descending order of prestige. Most striking is the labeling of the four varieties as governed by laws, customs, opinions, and impulse, with Europeans on the top and Africans at the bottom. In fact, different populations within all four varieties would have had all four forms of behavior. (8).
Although historical perspectives show racial differences as a biological factor, recent studies show that race is more a social than a biological fact. To this day the notion of race is an ongoing debate. Race is more or less defined as a “socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important” (Macionis, 2013, p. 40). Many factors lead social scientists to believe that race is no longer a biological factor, but rather importance given to differences amongst people by the people. Johann Frederich Blumenbach, a German physician, is known to be the first to develop taxonomy of race (Gabbidon, 2013, p. 1). Blumenbach conducted a research in which he separated the people of color into five groups: “Ethiopian (African), Mongolian (Asian), American (Native American), Malaysian (Pacific Islander) and White (Causcasian)” (p.1). Although his work is known to be the gateway for human classification, scholars have further expanded the idea of race.There are parts of this concept...
The beginnings of racial difference can be traced back to the Age of Exploration, during which England was expanding its trading routes and was highly involved with trade in Africa. The English traders noticed distinguishing differences between themselves and the African people, both in physical appearance and cultural primitiveness. It was not until the 18th century when the word race began to enter languages and vocabularies, and this idea of a difference between peoples was prodded further into existence through the work of Carolus Linnaeus. Linnaeus composed a list of subspecies of human beings based on racial differences. There were several other scientists, such Georges Cuvier and Charles Darwin, as who created subspecies of man. Social Darwinism, alluded to the concept that eventually one greater subspecies of man would prevail and be the most elite of all of human kind. These lists often categorized the order of species with the white, European man at the top of the list and the darker skinned, African man at the bottom. An example of a concept of categorization was the Great Chain of Being, through which all things, including man and the subspecies of man, are given ...
Benjamin Franklin was one of the most significant figures during the 18th century. The significance of Benjamin Franklin can be observed through his contributions to society. Such contributions include his profession as a printer, the creation of the first subscription library, the creation of Poor Richard’s Almanac, and his experiments with electricity. In addition, Franklin also tried to reconcile the differences between England and America, and when that proved futile, he traveled to France in an attempt to convince the French to support America in their quest for independence from England. At one point in time Benjamin Franklin was the most famous American on the planet.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev Dmitri Mendeleev was one of the most famous modern-day scientists of all time, who contributed greatly to the world’s fields of science, technology, and politics. He helped modernize the world and set it further ahead into the future. Mendeleev also made studying chemistry easier, by creating a table with the elements and the atomic weights of them put in order by their properties. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was born in Tobolsk, Siberia, on February 7, 1834. The blonde-haired, blue-eyed boy was the son of Maria Dmitrievna Korniliev and Ivan Pavlovitch Mendeleev and the youngest of 14 children.
The first chapter focuses on the first impressions between the people of different color also the reasons Africans had evolved or changed into what they now appeared to be. The section on causes of complexion was both fascinating and entertaining. Many of the theories were of the wall and far fetched. One such opinion of how Africans gained their complexion that the book gave includes an ancient Greek myth of Phaeton. This character drove a chariot into the heavens and thus altered in his appearance (p11). Though this Greek myth, probably not the truth of how Africans gained their color many did believe it probably had something to do with the sun. The theory of equatorial dwellers of Africa, this being the reason for the skin pigmentation, became illogical once Africans were compared to the Indians living in the hottest parts of the New World (p14). Some believed that the African was merely dark because they had left their colder northern climate. Experiments quickly ruled this out as a possible answer (p15). The most far-fetched and humorous theory came through the biblical illustration involving Noah. Many believed it the curse given upon Noah’s son Ham for “looking upon his father’s nakedness” (p17). Each of these contrasting views on color needed to be used in this book. For no better reason in that it showed from an initial point that the English viewed the color of the Africans as a plague. Instead of excepting that Africans may in fact be different, the English consistently made attempts to explain the dif...
Brunswick in 1792 when he was provided with a stipend to allow him to pursue his
In our society we seem to easily classify individuals based on racial stereotypes. Cultural anthropologists have been able to determine real biological differences in humans which explain the reasons why people in different regions of the world have varying skin color. The study of how and why the physical traits of human populations vary across the world is known as the study of human variation.