ABSTRACT: A commonly accepted criticism of the social contract approach to justifying political authority targets the notion of hypothetical consent. Hypothetical contracts, it is argued, are not binding; therefore hypothetical consent cannot justify political authority. I argue that although hypothetical consent may not be capable of creating political obligation, it has the power to legitimate political arrangements. Hypothetical Consent and Justification A commonly accepted criticism of the social contract approach to justifying political authority targets the idea of hypothetical consent. Since only actual agreements are binding, the argument goes, citizens are not bound to obey their governments on the ground that, under circumstances different from the ones in which they now find themselves, they would have agreed to submit to its authority. (1) The purpose of this paper is to rescue hypothetical consent from this objection. I begin by distinguishing political legitimacy from political obligation. (2) I argue that while hypothetical consent may not serve as an adequate ground for political obligation, it is capable of grounding political legitimacy. I understand a theory of political legitimacy to give an account of the justice of political arrangements. (3) I understand a theory of political obligation to give an account of why and under what conditions, citizens are morally required to obey the rules constituting those arrangements. The social contract tradition offers us hypothetical consent theories of both political obligation and political legitimacy, frequently neglecting to distinguish the two ideas. Likewise, the common objection to hypothetical consent theories — that hypothetical contracts do not bind — ... ... middle of paper ... ...vice of representation". (14) For an argument that no contractual agreement on the two principles of justice occurs in the original position and that therefore the two principles are not justified by a contract, see Jean Hampton, "Contracts and Choices: Does Rawls Have a Social Contract Theory?" The Journal of Philosophy 77, 6 (June 1980): 315-38. (15) As Jeremy Waldron maintains, "When we move from asking what people actually accept to asking what they would accept under certain conditions, we shift our emphasis away from the will and focus on the reasons that people might have for exercising their will in one way rather than another." Waldron, p. 55. (16) This objection is due to Bruce Landesman. (17) For a discussion of this distinction and the relation between the reasonable and the rational, see Rawls, PL, pp. 48-54. (18) See Freeman, pp. 123-31.
Commencing penetration tests within the infrastructure of Alexander Rocco Corporation may be a strenuous, yet beneficial process. However, before commencing penetration tests, much planning, strategizing, and research is necessary in order to ensure successful, seamless, and legal operations. Based on information provided by the SANS Institute, an initial meeting should be coordinated between those responsible for conducting the tests, along with the appropriate leadership personnel of the company (source). Within the meeting, the scope of the project should be established, classifying company data appropriately, and determining which components of the company’s infrastructure require penetration testing, which may include Alexander Rocco Corporation’s
PKC is the enabling technology for all Internet security and the increasing use of digital signatures, which are replacing traditional signatures in many contexts. However, RSA is better than PKC because RSA doesn’t need digital signature. As a result, the RSA algorithm turned out to be a perfect fit for the implementation of a practical public security system. In 1977, Martin Gardner first introduced the RSA system. After 5 years, company RSA used secure electronic security products. Nowadays many credit companies of all over the world use the RSA system or a similar system based on the RSA system.
Shannon, T. J., & Gellman, D. N. (2014). American odysseys: a history of colonial North America. New York : Oxford University Press.
El Nino is both an atmospheric and oceanic phenomenon affecting weather patterns all around the world. It is complemented by La Nina in a cycle that occurs approximately every 4 years, varying as much as every two years to every six years (Wang 1999, 3331). La Nina has almost the opposite effect, however differs in its strength and duration randomly, as does El Nino (Fedorov 2000, 1998). The cycle is often paraphrased as ENSO, standing for El Nino-Southern Oscillation (Flugel 1997, 3230). It is called this because the El Nino phenomenon is especially strong in the Southern Hemisphere, and has greater effects in areas of the pacific near the equator. Although ENSO is prominent in certain areas, it alters weather patterns all around the world. The El Nino pattern can be quite random with and approximate range of 2 to 6 years per cycle, and is a loaded gun believed to be triggered by western winds (Fedorov 2000, 1997). Many scientists are now looking to the past for answers, so the El Nino cycle can be predicted for the years to come. New discoveries have recently been made on El Nino's history, and possible future.
In this paper, I articulate and evaluate an important argument in support of the claim that citizens of a liberal democracy should not support coercive policies on the basis of a rationale they know other citizens reasonably reject. I conclude that that argument is unsuccessful. In particular, I argue that religious believers who support coercive public policies on the basis of religious convictions do not disrespect citizens who reasonably regard such religious convictions as false.
In Huemer’s The Problem Of Political Authority an argument is made against the idea of a political authority. The idea in this argument is that the government has certain rights that do not pertain to the citizens as well. The purpose of this paper is to show that Huemer’s argument fails by arguing a consent-based response to Huemer’s criticisms, which shows that the government does not actually violate a “social contract” made with society. The idea behind this is that we have actually consented to the government’s authority in several ways without being explicit.
Each day, billions of people throughout the world affirm their commitment to a specific idea; to be part of a society. While this social contract is often overlooked by most citizens, their agreement to it nevertheless has far-reaching consequences. Being a member of society entails relinquishing self-autonomy to a higher authority, whose aim should be to promote the overall good of the populace. While making this decision to become part of a commonwealth is usually performed without explicit deliberation, there is a common consensus amongst philosophers that something unique to the human experience is the driving force behind this decision. Contained within this something are highly contested points of debate amongst both past and contemporary political philosophers. Two such philosophers are Thomas Hobbes and Thomas Aquinas. Each of these political writers provide detailed arguments regarding the concept of natural law, the role that reason plays in this law, whether some laws are considered truly rational, and why some people choose not to follow certain principles even when they recognize them to be rational. By analyzing each of these arguments, we will arrive at the conclusion that even though the rational principles that reason provides us can easily be disregarded by the populace, that we can still find a common good within promulgating rational doctrine.
... for marine life. During an El Niño event, westerly winds at the western end of the basin permit warm water to flow eastward and trade winds weaken. The storm zone and atmospheric convection move with the warm water resulting in heavy rainfall and flooding along coastal areas of western South America. The thermocline (the boundary layer between the warm surface water and the deeper, colder water) deepens and the cold water isn’t pushed up, which deprives marine life of necessary nutrients. During a La Niña event, trade winds grow stronger and the warm pool shrinks, which results in a colder, drier climate off the coast of America. Atmospheric convection is restricted to the western end of the basin and abundant rain falls over Indonesia. Cold waters along the west coast of South America surge upward and nutrients are plentiful for marine life (El Niño, n.d.).
This theory looks at how the sovereign and its officials created the law based on social norms and the institutions (Hart, 1958). However, hard cases such as this makes for bad law, which test the validity of the law at hand based on what the objective of the law was in the first place. The law should not be so easily dismissed just because it does not achieve justice in the most morally sound manner (Hart, 1958). Bentham and Austin understood that there are two errors in the way law is understood, what the law is and what the law should be (Hart, 1958). He knew that if law was to become what humans perceived the law ought to be, the law itself would be lost, but he also recognized that if the opposite was to occur where the law replaced morality, than any man would escape liability and there would be no retribution (Hart, 1958). This theory looks at the point of view of the dissenting judge, Justice Gray, which is that the law is what it is, even if it may conflict with morals. Austin stated that “The existence of law is one thing; its merit and demerit another. Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry (Hart, 1958).” This case presents the same conflict that Bentham and Austin addressed, that the law based on the statute of the
7. Lemos, Robert, When is Hacking a Crime? 26 Sept 2002, ZDNetNews, 15 Mar. 2004, <http://www.frame4.com/php/printout88.html>
El Niño can be an issue for marine life in the Pacific Oceans as it disrupts and affects fish distributions. Furthermore, El Niño results in fishes such as the mahi mahi, swordfish, striped marlin, and blue marlin to occur in areas where they are not normally found.
This mutual transference of rights is called a contract, or covenant. By adhering to the contract, a man gives up whatever rights set forth by the contract. However, man cannot give up his right to defend himself, for the entire purpose of entering the contract is self-preservation. Once the contract is formed, one must obey Hobbes’ third law of nature, which is to adhere to the contract (Leviathan 1, 14)...
Jainism is one of the oldest religions founded in India (“History of Jainism”). Jainism holds...
The main idea behind El Nino is that the wind changes direction across the Pacific Ocean. In a non El Nino year (normal), the trade winds blow from east to west across the ocean, from North and South America towards the tropical regions of the Pacific Ocean. In an El Nino year, the trade winds change direction and blow from Asia and the tropical Pacific towards North and South America (NOAA B, 2004). The changes in these winds, commonly called Southern Oscillation winds because the majority of activity happens in the southern parts of the Pacific, produce many other changes. In the final analysis, the winds are the root of this scheme. John Daly (2004) discussed how the winds produce major changes in the temperature of the ocean water. This is the second main concept of El Nino. In normal years, when the wind blows from east to west, the temperature at “Sea Surface” is about 8 degrees cooler in the west than in the east. During El Nino, the winds blow a certain amount of water towards the west, thus piling it up and making its depth approximately one half meter deeper. Because of the loss of water at either coast, the deeper ocean water rises to replace what is gone. The deeper/cooler water is the source of many incomes in North and South America; however, in an El Nino year, the warmer water sits on top of the ocean, which creates many tribulations relating to both income and weather. The last main point of El Nino is the weather that follows due to the changes in water temperature. Precipitation follows the warmer water, whichever direction it flows. During the normal wind patterns the rainfall in the southern Pacific islands is consistent and creates their tropical identity. Whe...
Jainism; an ancient religion from India that shows individuals that the way to liberation and bliss is to live lives of harmlessness and renunciation. Jains believe that all things have a living soul. The quintessence of Jainism is concern for the welfare of every being in the universe and the health of the universe itself. All souls are equal and must be treated with respect and compassion. Jains are strict vegetarians and live like minimalists, avoiding as much waste as possible. Jains seek to attain ultimate liberation - which means escaping the continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth with the intent of the immortal soul living forever in a state of bliss. Once an individual has eliminated all karma from the soul, liberation is obtained.