Human Genetic Screening
opinion Essay
2676 words
Human Genetic Screening Humans, like all other living organisms, have genes. These genes instruct our bodies to make proteins, these proteins are the molecules that determine the shape and function of each cell. Each gene or set of genes encode for the production of a particular protein.What is a gene ?The term " gene "was created by Wilhelm Johanssen, a Danish botanist in 1911. He was discussing units of inheritance that Mendel called factors.T.H. Morgan's studies on fruit fly genetics led to the idea of a gene as the smallest unit of recombination. Aggregated with this idea was another that said the gene was the unit of mutation, and another that the gene is the unit of function (the smallest unit of control over the phenotype ). Modern evidence suggests that recombination can occur between any two nucleotide, which make the unit of recombination only one nucleotide long . Some mutations change only one nucleotide, so the unit of mutation could be only one nucleotide long . The unit of function is the cistron which is about 900-1500 nucleotide long. So we can identify the gene as the length of DNA that codes for one functional product (6). DNA of the human species carries more or less the same set of DNA with some variations . Variations in the DNA sequence can be neutral, others might have positive or negative influence. Genetic screening is testing of this variation (2). Human race carries 3000-4000 diseases in it's genes, and it is important to distinguish between inherited diseases and infectious diseases. Inherited diseases are caused by mutated genes which are inherited by an individual from his or her parents (2). The faulty gene will be one of the many healthy thousands of genes we possess in our cells. To pinpoint the location of these faulty genes, scientists search for variations in larger piece of DNA called markers, these subunits lie nearby on the DNA chain, and form the basis of genetic screening. What is genetic screening ? The principle of genetic screening is based on the binding of a probe to the DNA molecule of the patient or the person to be screened. Complementary DNA nucleotide sequences bind to each other. The probe used is usually single stranded DNA, which binds to the test sample. The DNA sample can be analyzed by a technique called restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP). In this technique the DNA sample is cut up with a mixture of restriction enzymes which cut the DNA at a specific sequences.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that genes instruct our bodies to make proteins and determine the shape and function of each cell. the term gene was created by wilhelm johanssen, a danish botanist in 1911.
- Explains that human dna carries more or less the same set of dna with some variations. variations in the dna sequence can be neutral, others might have positive or negative influence.
- Explains that human race carries 3000-4000 diseases in its genes, and it is important to distinguish between inherited diseases and infectious diseases. inherited diseases are caused by mutated genes.
- Explains that genetic screening is based on binding of a probe to the dna molecule of the patient or the person to be screened.
- Explains that there are two types of genetic screening — screening of children and adults and screening unborn children.
- Explains that a successful screening program for thalassemia was performed in cyprus with the cooperation of the local church.
- Explains the second type of genetic screening involving screening of unborn children is called prenatal screening.
- Explains that preimplantation screening has been used since 1989. evidence suggests that embryos are not harmed by this procedure.
- Explains that genetic counselors are placed in a powerful position due to the rapid developments in the field of genetic screening.
- Explains the benefits of genetic screening, such as the screening of newborn children for pku deficiency, which was made compulsory in usa in 1960.
- Explains that genetic screening works economically, because it is cheaper to treat patients before serious damage is done to them by a genetic disease, than to keep sufferers in institutions.
- Explains that many common cancers such as lung, breast, and colon develop by step-wise accumulation of mutations affecting many genes. genetic screening may help predicting a cancer and can be used to warn people
- Explains that the rapid progress in this field during the last decade led to issues of the consequences of new technology, which in many cases have a negative effect on people whose genetic tests reveal that they are under risk of genetic diseases.
- Explains that carrying a gene for susceptibility, such as the breast cancer gene brca1, does not necessarily mean one will get the disease. geneticists and physicians generally agree that no one should be tested just because of fear of an illness.
- Predicts a dramatic increase in the amount of patients genetic data, which can affect the choice of spouse, decisions on whether to have children, and prenatal screening and selective abortion.
- Opines that genetic information can be a great benefit to individuals, but the danger of it becoming available to others could lead to genetic discrimination. recent surveys indicated that health insurance coverage was denied to many people due to their genetic status.
- Opines that it is ethical to use abortion for some treatable diseases such as pku, which can be treated with dietary measures. genetic screening tests for people with mental diseases lead to unfair labeling of people.
- Describes the issues that could be discussed about the right of people to have their genetic data confidential.
- Argues that if we let the parents choose characters for their children, such as being free from the most common genetically inherited diseases, then this might have a harmful effect on social attitudes toward other people who failed to meet such characteristics.
- Opines that the use of these new techniques raises ethical issues, such as screening embryos for genetic diseases and allowing couples to select the sex of their child.
- Opines that it is difficult to say a final word about the need to proceed with this kind of research or to stop because this issue is complicated and has different scientific, psychological, economical, emotional, ethical, and religious aspects.
- Opines that if the application of any new technology leads to negative impacts on the members of the society, it will be unaccepted by the majority.
- Opines that studies and applications of this technology should proceed because it will have a positive effect in finding the solution for many fatal diseases that affect thousands of people every day.
- Cites ahfmr news letter, 1995, and biosis home page. macer, d. 1990, shaping genes : ethics, law and science of using new genetic technology
Related
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- The Genetic Screening Debatecomparative essayThe Genetic Screening Debate Within the past thirty years, researchers have found strong evidence linking genes and disease. The development of predictive genetic tests followed shortly after the isolation of certain candidate genes. Although predictive genetic screening is only available for a handful of diseases, its effects and ramifications have become hotly debated issues in a wide range of areas, from government to religion. The debate began in the 1993 when researchers isolated the BRCA1 gene, which is associated with increased risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that proponents believe that people from high-risk families can gain many benefits from knowing whether or not they carry a genetic mutation.
- Describes the biology of genetic testing, and then discusses the pros and cons of it.
- Concludes that genetic tests do not provide definitive results and therefore should not be used.
- Explains that genetic testing for cancer is here, whether we need it or not.
1835 wordsRead More - Identifying DNA Abnormalities Through Genetic Testingexplanatory essayGenetic testing involves examining an individual’s DNA and identifying abnormalities within the chemical makeup of specific structures. It, essentially, maps the person’s genome and can be interpreted to predict future issues. By analyzing the chromosome, genes, and even certain proteins, physicians and researchers can find changes that lead to inheritable disorders. These changes can lead to possible diagnosis or cure for the disorder in question. In most cases, genetic testing is used to determine the probability that an individual will develop a certain disorder. It is not used to specifically diagnose a disorder, as there are no techniques that are 100% accurate. Genetic testing techniques do give good evidence to confirm a physician’s findings, but it is not the first act a physician takes to diagnose a disorder. It can narrow a search or rule out a specific disorder very confidently, but making a diagnosis based solely on genetic testing is not an action that a qualified medical professional would consider.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that the movie talked about genotyping and actionable genes. genotyping reveals the alleles of an individual that have been inherited.
- Opines that prenatal screening and preimplantation genetic diagnosis are more beneficial than harmful and can help parents plan for possible eventualities.
- Explains that sickle cell anemia is a well-researched disorder of the red blood cells.
- Explains that genetic testing can determine whether a couple is carriers of disease, and if they will possibly pass it on to the next generation.
- Describes the types of genetic tests available at the national library of medicine.
- Describes the signs and symptoms of sickle cell anemia from the heart, lung, and blood institute.
- Explains omim entry # 603903 - sickle cell anemia.
- Explains the risks and limitations of genetic testing from the national library of medicine's genetics home reference.
- Explains that genetic testing involves examining an individual's dna and identifying abnormalities within the chemical makeup of specific structures.
- Explains the signs and symptoms of sickle cell anemia, including fatigue, shortness of breath, dizziness, headaches, and jaundice. the mutant beta globin (hbs) mutation is associated with many other genetic precursors.
1281 wordsRead More - The Ethical Implications of Genetic Screening and Testing: Arguments For and Againstanalytical essayGiven advancements in technology and medicine, genetic screening and testing is becoming more commonplace in our society. The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) defines genetic screening as “a search in a population for persons possessing certain genotypes that (1) are already associated with disease or predispose to disease, (2) may lead to disease in their descendants, or (3) produce other variations not known to be associated with disease” (NHGRI, 2005). The term genetic testing is similar, but differs in that it only targets those individuals believed to be at high risk for a genetic disease. For example, testing an asymptomatic person in a family with relatives affected with the condition would constitute genetic testing (NHGRI, 2005). For the purpose of this paper, the two terms will be used interchangeably. Given the growing number of genetic tests available for identifying genetic diseases, it is important to examine the ethical implications of genetic screening as well as the arguments for and against this practice.
In this essay, the author
- Argues that direct-to-consumer (dtc) companies have a moral and ethical responsibility to educate parents about the risks of testing their children and discourage the testing of minors for rare genetic traits.
- Argues that genetic testing has the potential to lower morbidity and mortality through early disease detection and targeted surveillance and prevention strategies.
- Analyzes the ethical implications of genetic screening and the arguments for and against it.
- Summarizes the findings of heshka, palleschi, howley, wilson & wells' systematic review on the psychological and behavioral impacts of genetic testing.
- Analyzes julian savulescu's chapter entitled "genetic interventions and the ethics of enhancement of human beings".
- Explains the centre for genetics education's ethical and policy issues in genetic testing and screening of children.
1911 wordsRead More - Genetic Testing or Genetic Screeningopinion essayGenetic testing, also known as screening, is a rapidly advancing new scientific field that can potentially revolutionize not only the world of medicine, but many aspects of our lives. Genetic screening is the sequencing of human DNA in order to discover genetic differences, anomalies, or mutations that may prove pathological. As genetic screening becomes more advanced and easily accessible, it presents society with difficult questions that must be asked about the boundaries of science and to what degree we are allowed to tamper with the human genome. To better understand the potential impact of genetic screening on our society, we must examine the potential benefits in comparison to the possible negative impact it may cause. With this knowledge in hand, we can examine what the future holds for this field of study and the best possible direction to take.
In this essay, the author
- Argues that genetic screening has many revolutionary applications, but personalized medicine is the most significant.
- Opines that genetic screening could have serious unintended consequences for the public, allowing insurers and employers to use that information to deny coverage and benefits.
- Opines that progress is inevitable and research into the human genome will most likely continue.
- Opines that legalizing over-the-counter genetic testing would provide solutions to some of the problems facing the field of study.
- Opines that genetic screening should be allowed to continue but only under heavy scrutiny from regulating bodies.
- Explains that genetic testing, also known as screening, is a rapidly advancing scientific field that can potentially revolutionize not only the world of medicine, but many aspects of our lives.
- Cites coughlin, s.s., and weeks, c. (2002). future challenges for research on diagnostic tests: genetic tests and disease prevention.
1504 wordsRead More - Genetic Testinganalytical essayGenetic Testing The technologies available to aid in diagnosing genetic diseases and disorders have developed extraordinarily over the years. As a result, one topic up for discussion is how the technology should be used in the realm of diagnosing children before birth, mainly, using it to selectively screen embryos for genetic diseases. Leon Kass is one author who opposes genetic testing. He provides two main reasons why he feels it is morally wrong to use genetic screening on unborn children.
In this essay, the author
- Opines that those affected with down's syndrome will suffer tremendously, including socially and emotionally. it is a chromosomal abnormality that results from faulty eggs or sperm.
- Argues that kass's second point is that we easily slide from possession to identity when we describe an individual, but he is wrong about the reasons behind it.
- Analyzes leon kass' persuasive argument against genetic testing. he provides examples of how those suffering from genetic diseases are later selected against will suffer significant emotional distress and social alienation.
- Explains that leon kass opposes the use of genetic screening on unborn children.
- Analyzes how kass believes genetic testing is morally wrong. he believes that children born with a genetic disorder will be treated differently by their parents and others.
1262 wordsRead More - Eugenicsopinion essayBut first what are genes? Genes are often described as 'blueprints' or 'computer programs' for our bodies and all living organisms. Genes are specific sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are used in the production of proteins. They are a single factor among many. "They provide the 'list of ingredients' which is then organized by the 'dynamical system' of the organism." That 'dynamical system' determines how the organism is going to develop. A recipe of ingredients alone does not create a dish of food.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that abraham lincoln issued the emancipation proclamation on january 1, 1863, as the nation approached its third year of bloody civil war.
- Explains that although genetic engineering hasn't been fully developed, the human genome project has almost mapped every one of a human's chromosomes.
- Explains that genes are specific sequences of dna (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are used in the production of proteins. a recipe of ingredients alone does not create a dish of food.
- Explains that a gene is not an easily identifiable and tangible object. the dna sequence determines its functions in the organisms and its location in chromosomal, cellular, physiological, and evolutionary contexts.
- Explains that genetic engineering, also known as eugenics, refers to the artificial modification of the genetic code of a living organism.
- Opines that genetic engineering is religiously wrong, and a genetically engineered child would represent man being more powerful than god, jesus, alla, buddha, mother nature and destiny.
- Opines that genetically engineering a person would make the declaration of independence meaningless and society will crumble due to the instant fall of the basic beliefs on which this country was built.
- Explains that insurance companies make money by insuring people and things for events or accidents that never happen. they would not insure someone who has been genetically tested and is known to be a likely candidate for lung cancer.
- Analyzes how eugenics would open the gates for a new and greater type of discrimination. the main character in gattaca is not accepted because he was not genetically modified.
- Explains that the gap between the rich and the poor will only increase with the development of genetic engineering.
- Analyzes why people dislike school, their job, and sometimes their parents. genetic engineering would turn into a way for parents to live their ideal life through their child.
- Opines that eugenics will shake the foundation that all religions and this country were built on.
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In this essay, the author
- Describes the guidelines for diagnosis of cystic fibrosis in newborns through older adults.
- Describes holt productions, nova, and pbs home video's cracking your genetic code.
- Explains the national library of medicine's genetics home reference. what is genetic testing?
- Explains that genetic testing has become a highly controversial issue among both the general population and the scientific community.
1033 wordsRead More - Genetic Testing and the US Healthcare Systemargumentative essayHealthcare in America is in a crisis. By 1996, more than 43 million Americans were uninsured. By 2010, the number is expected to rise to 57 million. These figures are already shocking, but they are even more so considering that the healthcare costs of the US total $1.2 trillion or 15% of the gross national product (GNP) – the highest in the world.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that genetic testing is the analysis of human dna, rna and chromosomes to detect heritable disease-related genotypes and mutations. prenatal, newborn, and carrier screening are included.
- Explains that genetic testing continues to have economic benefits for working and productive members of society.
- Opines that genetic testing needs to play an increasingly important role in the us healthcare system. it will allow healthcare providers to allocate resources more efficiently while still reducing overall healthcare expenditures.
- Proposes the widespread use of genetic testing in the us healthcare system to address the concerns of spiraling healthcare costs.
- Explains the importance of genetic testing in preventing and treating diseases such as alzheimer's, cancer, and breast cancer.
- Argues that genetic testing can reduce healthcare costs if used as a form of preventive medicine.
- Argues that genetic testing saves money in the short-term by more efficiently adopting a preventive medicine approach.
- Explains that genetic testing is essential for the proper diagnosis of rare single-gene disorders. genetic testing eliminates mental and physical anguish associated with disease.
- Proposes ratification of bills in congress outlawing genetic discrimination by insurance providers.
2450 wordsRead More - Huntington's Diseaseexplanatory essayGenes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is shaped like a spiral ladder. On each “step” of this ladder there are two paired chemicals called bases. There are four types of bases, adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). Certain bases pair together for example adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine. Different combinations of base pairs join to form coded messages in our DNA. For example the different combinations of A, T, C, and G determine the genes function. There are tens of thousands of genes and base pairs of DNA repeated in the nuclei of human cells which can determine an individual’s characteristics. These genes are arranged in specific locations along 23 pairs of chromosomes. One chromosome from each of the pairs comes from that person’s mother, and the other from their father. There is one specific pair which is the 23rd pair which determines the sex of an individual. Other than that the other pairs are similar in bot...
In this essay, the author
- Describes huntington's disease as a genetic disorder in which nerve cells in the brain start to degenerate. a single abnormal gene, the basic biological units of heredity, produces the disease.
- Explains that someone with huntington's disease will show symptoms like hallucinations, irritability, paranoia, or restlessness, abnormal movement, loss of memory, personality changes, speech impairment, difficulty swallowing, and stress.
- Explains that genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (dna). dna is shaped like a spiral ladder.
- Explains that huntington's disease is caused by a genetic defect located on chromosome 4 where base pairs are repeated over and over again.
- Explains that each child whose parent has huntington's disease has a 50% chance of inheriting the gene.
- Explains that a few exams can determine whether someone has huntington’s disease, such as x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging, and genetic testing.
- Explains that treatment for huntington's disease is available, although there is no way to cure someone with the disease. treatment is only available to slow the symptoms and allow the person to function as long as possible.
- States that the national institute of neurological disorders and stroke (ninds) has a huntington's disease information page.
- Describes collins, lucy m, stanley e lazic, and roger a barker. a retrospective analysis of hand tapping as a longitudinal marker of disease progression in huntington's disease
- States andersson, petra lilja, et al., "ethical aspects of undergoing a predictive genetic testing for huntington's disease." nursing ethics 20.2.
595 wordsRead More - Breast Cancer Susceptibility Screeningopinion essayEng, C., and J. Vijg. 1997. Genetic testing: the problems and the promise. Nature Biotechnology 15:422-426.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that brca1, a breast cancer susceptibility gene, has had an unprecedented impact on the study of cancer genetics.
- Opines that the ethics of genetic testing for breast cancer must be examined as a critical aspect of the issue.
- Explains that the human body contains two major classes of regulatory genes that are necessary for normal cell growth control: proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.
- Explains that brca1 was the first breast cancer gene to be isolated through positional cloning methods.
- Explains that brca2 is located on the long arm of chromosome 13 and codes for a large, negatively charged protein.
- Explains the technical aspects of genetic screening for breast cancer by presenting the major techniques used, how these differ, and which ones are currently the most promising.
- Explains that the size and complexity of breast cancer genes is a major obstacle in developing successful screening techniques.
- Explains that genetic screening techniques are grouped into two main categories: screening and scanning methods. screening methods involve probing the gene for previously identified mutations.
- Explains that mutation scanning methods involve scanning the gene with no presumptions about existing mutations. only the promoter region, coding regions, and splice sites are incorporated.
- Explains that nucleotide sequencing is currently the standard against which other methods are compared, due to its extremely high accuracy. however, this method is laborious and expensive.
- Explains that chip technology involves impregnating dna sequences onto a microchip and comparing them to variants through hybridization analysis. this method is suitable for confined mutations in brca1.
- Explains that the test of molecular phenotype is not suitable for breast cancer susceptibility genes because the exact functions of these genes are not yet known.
- Opines that protein truncation tests are the most promising method for determining breast cancer susceptibility.
- Explains that an ideal genetic test for breast cancer would conform to the following criteria:cost effective (less than $100 per gene or gene combination)100% specificity 100% sensitivity rapiduser friendlyethical considerations
- Argues that genetic screening is unethical due to uncertainty, psychological impact, false sense of security, and potential for discrimination.
- Explains that genetic discrimination is an ethical issue that has been regulated by the health insurance portability and accountability act of 1996.
- Opines that genetic test results alone cannot be treated as a pre-existing condition. group medical plans cannot force any person to pay higher premiums than people of equal status.
- Opines that genetic screening for breast cancer susceptibility is an incredible advance in the field of cancer genetics, but it does have limitations.
- Opines that genetic screening should only be undergone by women who have a strong family history of breast cancer and fully understand the implications of test results.
- Opines that the current genetic tests are far from perfect, but they open up a whole new door into the future.
- Explains that gene testing for cancer susceptibility: what your institution needs to know. http://www.medscape.com/accc/oncissues/1997/v12.n02/oi1202.02.
- Analyzes the link between genetic testing and familial breast and ovarian cancer.
2450 wordsRead More