1. Outline
In this article, I will explore in details the gender bias of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs). First, I will give an in depth overview and background information about Structural Adjustment Programs. Secondly, the research will also examine and highlight the factors that influence the adoption of Structural Adjustment Programs. Moreover, the essay will briefly elaborate on the term gender and what constitute gender bias.
Furthermore, I will attempt to evaluate the impact on gender by the implementation of the conditionalities of the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) as stipulated by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB).
1.1 Introduction
Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) were neoliberal policies that were supported by the World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) for implementation in developing countries. The policy consequences are still a controversial issue and the mere mention of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) can provoke heated debate. The effects of Structural Adjustment Programs are far and wide and the debates about its impacts still stand the test of time. While Structural Adjustment Program(SAPs) was regarded as a success story in some countries by analysts for mainly its regulatory role in public service reform (Jayarayah Cral, Barson William 1995) and that SAP was working ,but improper evaluation distorted its reality (P. Thandika Mkandawire, Charles Chukwuma Soludo 2003). It’s also widely criticized by other critics for its adverse effects on for instance agriculture;
That is substantial expansion of aggregate agricultural output and export is unrealistic in the short and long terms, even if all the components are in place at the sta...
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...ton wood institutions namely World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund (IMF). The triumph of western liberal democracy and market economy was a turning point in the history of the world. The new agenda was a transformation of global political economies around the world in alignment of the western system through democracy and market liberalization.
Authors of Marxian orientation had argued using dependency theories that Structural Adjustment Programs ( SAPs) were not a consequence of financial activities of ‘petrodollar recycling’ by western commercial banks and bulky ‘odious debt ‘owed by the developing countries but rather a rare opportunity to open third world economies which has hitherto pursued protectionist policies. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) thus was one of the latest activities in the growing influence of capitalism and neo liberalism.
Neoliberalism is an economic approach that promotes a laissez-faire model of trade (Edmonds-Poli & Shirk, 253). This economic model, widely supported by many Western economists, is based on three main principles: stabilization, structural adjustment, and trade liberalization. (Edmonds-Poli & Shirk, 254) Neoliberalism is a method to restructure the economy and the first step is to stabilize the fiscal supply. This happens through decreased government spending, leading to an overall decrease in employment, public services, and access to credit, while simultaneously increasing interest rates and the cost of imports (Edmonds-Poli & Shirk, 254). The next element of neoliberalism is structural adjustment which focuses on the shift from the public to the private sector. This shift is meant to minimize government involvement, which in turn stimulates competition in an open market economy to create a more efficient private sector (Edmonds-Poli & Shirk, 254). Finally, trade liberalization works to increase foreign investment and exports by lowering trade restrictions, such as tarif...
...ubmitting accession applications to the EU (Steger, 2003.) China, the world’s current second largest economy (IMF Historical data, 2013), has also been moving towards liberalism trade policy. Since the late 1980s imports subject to licensing have been greatly reduced and total controlled exports in their economy have been reduced from 66% in 1991 to 8% in 1999. China’s private sector has also been growing and fewer people are being employed in state-controlled manufacturing jobs (Lardy, 2003.) The transformation and elimination of communism around the world has all but removed Marxist ideology from the global economic perspective.
...onal Society, (2) transition, (3) takeoff, (4) drive to maturity, (5) high mass consumption (p. 4-16).” Coyne further argues that the conclusion reached by academic and policymakers of the day was that if the US applied targeted aid, they could foster “development abroad while supporting the spread of liberal capitalism to combat communism (p.36).” This attitude led to a dramatic rise in the interest in, and the funding of, international government organizations (IGO’s). Funding of foreign aid by the US grew from a few hundred million dollars a year to over $50 billion dollars a year in the mid 90’s. As economist Peter Bauer (2000) points out, those advocating for foreign aid in the late 1940’s believed that countries’ would only need a relatively short period of aid sufficient to cause “self-sustaining” growth (p. 41). This was based in part on the Soviet Union’s
To understand the theory of gender inequality better, it is necessary to confront the obstacles that have limited prior attempts. Amongst these, one the most important ones is the strong urge to minimize all explanations of gender inequality to some fundamental contrast between the sexes.
In this essay, I will be discussing the statement “Gender Inequalities exist and removing them is fundamental to development”. I will focus on how continents compare in their overall rankings taking in consideration health & survival, education, economic participation and political empowerment, with including a case study for an LEDC and MEDC country.
Neoliberalism, also called free market economy, is a set of economic policies that became widespread in the last 25 years. The concept neoliberalism, have been imposed by financial institutions that fall under the Bretton Woods such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO) and World Bank (Martinez & Garcia, 1996). One of the famous economists published a book called “The Wealth of Nations” in which he said in it that free trade is the best way to develop nations economies (Martinez & Garcia, 1996). He and other economists also encouraged the removal of government intervention in economic matters, no restrictions on manufacturing, removing borders and barriers between nations, and no taxes (Martinez & Garcia, 1996). The main goal of the economic globalization was to reduce poverty and inequality in the poorest regions. However, the effects of the neoliberal policies on people all over the world has been devastating (MIT, 2000).
Women face discrimination in the workplace. Nowadays, the gender inequality is a main problem in the workplace and society. It has been proved that working women earn less than men due to discrimination of class, race, and culture. Women should have the same opportunities as men. In fact, working women tend to be poorer, unhealthier, and less secure. It is important to stop all forms of discrimination against women and girl children and create more programs to help the affected victims.
Another thing is that they must be committed to eliminate gender discrimination in the workplace. Moreover, the impact of gender bias is related to the economy. Laws were first adopted which aimed at a general prohibition of discrimination against women and other groups that were historically discriminated against in the labor market still remain with unsolved discrimination issues. A significant portion of the wage gap between women and men in the workplace is due to employers ' unfair discriminating based on gender. Eliminating discrimination against women would enable the employment of the person, male or female, most likely to affect society. Everyone should recognize women’s social matter and try to remove their prejudice that men can perform better than women and treat women as equivalent to men. The Government needs to continue to try to help women in this society and practice a strict regulation to prevent discrimination against women. Women also need to raise her voice and
...." Women, Men and Development. March 2004: 1-27. SIRS Government Reporter. Web. 11 Mar. 2014.
Åsa Löfström´s report analyses the connection between gender equality, economic growth and employment. If we want to find an answer on the first question (Whether female employment rate matters for GDP and GDP-growth), we should first...
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Zetterberg, P, 2009. Do Gender Quotas Foster Political Engagement? Lessons from Latin America. Political Research Quarterly [ONLINE] 62 (4) pp. 715-730. Available from: Sage Publications Online
Lim, Joseph Y. and Montes, Manuel F. "The Structure of Employment and Structural Adjustment in the Philippines." Journal of Development Studies v.36
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