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Childless in socio-cultural and economic contexts
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Recommended: Childless in socio-cultural and economic contexts
Factors associated with the trends in childlessness: (1000 words )
Trends in marriage, trends in formation of family—Drawing from the literature.
Role of voluntary and involuntary factors (1000 words )
Is childlessness due to infertility or by circumstances or choice?- Drawing from the literature.
The risk of childlessness is increased with the delay in the first birth. The reproduction span is also reduced and so is the number of children. Changes in educational level also leads to postpone ment of fertility.(Olah and Bernhardt 2008). High tolerance towards childless ness is found in the Post modern values dominant in Sweden propagate the importance of leisure and friends in life and children though considered important , are not needed for a fulfilling life (Olah and Bernhardt 2008). The tertiary educated women in Sweden is seen to have higher rates of childlessness than others(Olah and Bernhardt 2008
Sweden observed highest female labour force participation in Europe and was considered as the major reason for the fertility decline in 60s and 80s in Sweden along with the post modern values and contraception use which provided more control over childbearing to the women(Olah and Bernhardt 2008))
Contradictory to the above, Sweden , who is the forerunner in the second demographic transition, has observed the European highest and Sweden lowest fertility trends which have fluctuated greatly in 1960s and 70s (Olah and Bernhardt 2008).With the dominance of the post modern values in this increasingly secularised society, Sweden boasts of having one of the highest ideal family size in the European union and childlessness is relatively low (Olah and Bernhardt 2008). Sweden also has the highest amount of labour force participation in the entire Europe and the education among women is also as high as the men(Olah and Bernhardt 2008). There is an important role played by the family policies in Sweden in keeping the fertility level high, which are based on equality across social groups and gender (Olah and Bernhardt 2008). The eligibility to parental leave and other benefits is linked to the labour force attachments and thus the family policies play an important role in the changes in the fertility rates(Ola and Bernhardt 2008).
Some researchers attributes enhanced economic status and educational attainment have contributed in delays in marriage and childbearing and increases in divorce and single motherhood(Danziger and Ratner 2010) please refer more to source
Claudia Goldin (2006) describes women’s enhanced engagement in the economy as the most remarkable change in the labour markets in the 20th century.
The history of the Swedish welfare state can be divided into five periods starting with the late 19th century until the 1920. Inspired by Bismarck’s reforms in Germany and several social problems in Sweden the workers’ question was widely discussed and the support for them grew. Several acts were established to fight poverty and to meet the different needs of the genders due to the male-bread-winner-system. Additionally,
Teenage parents are more likely to be impoverished and mentally unstable compared to other individuals who postpone having children. Compared to adult mothers...
Delayed parenting is a reality as young adults are putting their careers and financial gains over having children. According to the government data in Canada, the average age in which a woman becomes a first time mother is 29.4 years old. This figure has increased over the last 3 decades. Also, more than 50% of mothers were over the age of 30 when they gave birth in 2009. The main reasons why women today in North America delay having children is because they are requiring more education and staying in school longer. Secondly, raising children has financial expenses associated with it and couples want to have financial security before they decide to have children. Thirdly, the global economy is unstable and parents want to be able to offer their children social economic security before taking the leap into parenthood ("Indicators of Well-being in Canada ").
In 1994 Kenrick introduced “Parental Investment Theory”. He claimed society is organised so that women are protected and remain faithful, ensuring men are able to impart their genes to future generations. This also allows for women to be selective to ensure their partner provides food, shelter and other basic human necessities.
Today, in western industrialized nations, the decision whether or not to have children is, as Berk (2004) describes it a “….matter of individual choice” (p.460). This contrasts with many non western nations where what Michaels (1988, cited in Berk, 2004) describes childbearing as, “…an unavoidable cultural demand” (p.460).
The article that I researched regarding this area explores the reasons why women may be taking the steps to start a family without marriage, whether these pregnancies are planned or unplanned. The study was conducted using a couple of different methods including the National Survey of Family Growth and a Discrete-Time Hazard Model. “The National Survey of Family Growth is a periodic, nationally representative fertility survey conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics.
The population of the world today is 6,112,911,145 and progressively growing. Unfortunately, that figure is expected to double by the year 2050. Four-fifths of this population resides in developing countries of the "South". Because of extreme levels of fertility, mortality, and new migration, these developing countries are accountable for most of the world population growth. There are many reasons that explain why the numbers are increasing, but the main reason is the way of life for many of the people inhabiting these regions. With the combination of an unmet demand for family planning and the desire for a large family, the world's Total Fertility Rate(TFI) is 3.1. This is significantly higher than the average population replacement TFI of 2.1.
In country (a) there is a steady death rate whereas on the other hand in country (b) the life expectancy of adults has risen dramatically. As a result, one-eighth of “boomers” aged 40-60 years are both raising their children and taking care of their parents that are in old age. The taxes that are being collected in country (a) are paying for the care of both parents and grandparents, this results in economic hardships and why it is so difficult in order for women to have children.
From the discussion with my friends of how many children they expect to have, the majority of my friends indicated that they expect to 2-3 children. There are a number of factors that can influence and limit the number of children they may have as compared to their expectations. One of the factors leading to this result may be the increase of women in the work force. According to statistics, there is a huge increase in women’s labour force participation that has occurred in the last 30 years from 42% of women in the paid labour force in 1976 to 58% in 2004. (Chappell, McDonald, & Stones, 2007) Most of my female friends, family friends, or relatives I know are currently either working or in school achieving an education hoping to obtain a job in the future. Working often consumes a fair amount of the individual’s time, making them less available to the family, which may lead to the decision of having fewer children.
...n and how it affects their marriages. Jumping hastily in to having a child could lead to marital dissatisfaction.
The opportunities available to women in the market are not as diverse as those presented to men. Still, the construct of gender ideology influences how employers undertake economic decisions, and that is why companies still have jobs labelled as “men’s work” and occupations categorized as “women’s work.” Indeed, the pervasiveness of gender differences in labor markets is undeniably true, specifically with respect to salary gap between men and women, occupational gender segregation of men and women, and the challenge that women face in terms of juggling their time and attention between their career and family life. There is no denying that the salary of men is far more than that of women’s. In the Great Britain (and other parts of the globe), there are pieces of evidence which suggest that gendered practices of participation in the labor force still have significant impact on the economic security level that men and women develop over the course of their lives (Warren 606).
Family planning should be a very important factor in economic development of the nations, because it controls population growth. According to Gertler, Paul and Molyneaux, “Population control is a key element in a country’s ability to maintain and improve its economic and social welfare.”(Gertler, Paul, and Molyneaux) If a country’s population exceeds its economy, the people of that country suffer. Many countries, especially those which are underdeveloped, are exploring several methods to control their population growth. Their goal is sustainable population growth and a healthy economy.
Women were drawn into the work place in the 1960's when the economy expanded and rising consumer aspirations fueled the desire of many families for a second income. By 1960, 30.5 percent of all wives worked and the number of women graduating from college grew. (Echols, 400) Women soon found they were being treated differently and paid less then their male co-workers.
Although the overall rate of teen pregnancy has been declining, the rates have remained high for teens that are most vulnerable. The great majority of Americans believe that teen pregnancies are a serious national problem, indeed a problem that is the major component of what is thought to be national moral decline. However, what causes these teens to become pregnant at such a young age?
However, women have made optimistical progress towards equality and their role in the society has been changed dramatically since the last century. Many women stepped out of their home and start to work at factories and offices. The number of working women with children has more than doubled in the past 50 years. While working conditions for women may have improved, there is a lack of appreciation for the notion that work for most women doesn't end at the door of a factory or office. Despite an increase of women's participation in the labour force, women's share of housework has hardly changed in 50 years.