This essay will be exploring the depths of cognitive neuroscience, focussing on the most common brain scanning methods with particular reference to non-invasive techniques, whilst also discussing the ethical considerations of some more invasive methods within cognitive neuroscience.
For many years there has been an intense debate between neuroscientists when taking into account ethical considerations in cognitive neuroscience. Although it is quite certain that invasive methods are the most effective when locating functions within the brain, it is also highly unethical, and therefore less effective methods must be used for human participants, although on occasions it is more feasible to use a non human subject in which case rats are regularly used. It is therefore the responsibility of neuroscientists to identify the most effective method of brain scanning for that particular purpose.
Some of the most common non-invasive brain scanning techniques are EEG (Electroencephalogram), fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), and PET (Positron Emission Topography). This essay will evaluate the effectiveness of these methods whilst comparing them to invasive methods in order to assess which of these methods may be the most appropriate alternative to invasive techniques.
In order to take on the ethical considerations involve in cognitive neuroscience, the first method to be developed was the PET scan which was introduced in the late 1950’s. It involves a small amount of radioactive glucose (2-deoxyglucose) to be injected into the carotid artery and accumulated in the most active areas of the body, giving off gamma radiation. These signals are then picked up by the computer’s sensors and transcribed into images of the brain, highl...
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...s case, it may be more appropriate to use a slower method such as a PET scan or an fMRI as it may give a more in-depth description of the activities occurring within the brain. A final consideration in this research is the combination of two methods, such as EEG and fMRI as both provide undeniable strengths in their own rights. While EEG’s are useful for measuring neuronal activities, fMRI’s are useful for location specific areas within the brain, and for this reason, both methods are able to work together to provide a high resolution image of the brain while the EEG will allow the researcher to keep a track of the neural activities within the brain.
Works Cited
http://www.biomedresearches.com/root/pages/researches/epilepsy/eeg_fmri_and_pet.html
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience/Behavioural_and_Neuroscience_Methods#EEG
There is no simple answer to the social dilemmas facing our society in the present day. One could spend days arguing reasons in support or opposition for issues such as the morality of abortion, the existence of free will, or the feasibility of universal ethics. In Michael S. Gazzaniga 's book, The Ethical Brain, these controversial topics are discussed using a brain-based philosophy of life, commonly known as Neuroethics. Although there are several advantages to solving such predicaments using a scientific approach, it is equally important to consider the personal and social implications of an ethical decision. For this reason, I partially agree with the statement that human beings should use Neuroethics to deal ethically with social issues
The brain has four major lobes. The frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and temporal lobe are responsible for all of the activities of the body, from seeing, hearing, tasting, to touching, moving, and even memory. After many years of debating, scientist presents what they called the localization issue, Garret explains how Fritsch and Hitzig studied dog with conforming observations, but the cases of Phineas Gage’s accident in 1848 and Paul Broca’s autopsy of a man brain in 1861 really grabbed the attention of an enthusiastic scientific community (Garret 2015 p.6)
Positron Emission Tomography is a scanning technique that allows us to measure in detail the functioning of distinct areas of the human brain while the patient is comfortable, conscious and alert. PET represents a type of functional imaging, unlike X-rays or CT scans, which show only structural details within the brain. The differences between these types of imaging don’t end there.
Electroencephalography is a cheap non-invasive technique which has become widely used in studying brain activity to measure the electric potential differences on the scalp produced by the active cortical neurons (5).
Invasive naturally means entering the body by cutting or inserting an instrument. In this case we are talking about how is it essential to use invasive technique’s to move further and faster in the world of Psychological studies. Studies have proved that by using invasive techniques it has changed the world of psychology because it gives researchers and experimenters a wider view on the brain.
Neuroimaging is a multidiscipline science and experts from the field of psychology, statistics, physics and physiology all contribute to its further development (Poldrack et al., 2007). In the last 20 years the imaging techniques developed from single proton emission tomography (SPET) to positron emission tomography (PET) and finally to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (Page, 2006). Their applications are numerous in experimental and cognitive psychology. However, at one level they can constitute another dependent variable (brain activity) as a response to an independent variable (stimulus manipulation) and at the other level, understanding the structure and processes of the brain can shed light on ‘normal’ cognitive functioning (Kaye, 2010). Therefore, this essay will argue that imaging techniques not only tell us about the brain structure but also try to explain its cognitive functions. Two non-invasive imaging techniques will be put forward, namely, electroencephalogram (EEG) that measures electrical activity and gives excellent temporal resolution and fMRI that is based on changes in blood supply and provides excellent spatial resolution. The claim will be evaluated in the light of their basic assumptions, methodology and contribution to examining the brain function. Relevant evidence of studies with healthy adults will be provided. Finally, technologies that can only show the brain structure will be introduced.
Historically, cognitive psychology was unified by an approach based on an resemblance between the mind and a computer, (Eysenck and Keane, 2010). Cognitive neuroscientists argue convincingly that we need to study the brain while people engage in cognitive tasks. Clearly, the internal processes involved in human cognition occur in the brain, and several sophisticated ways of studying the brain in action, including various imaging techniques, now exist, (Sternberg and Wagner, 1999, page 34).Neuroscience studies how the activity of the brain is correlated with cognitive operations, (Eysenck and Keane, 2010). On the other hand, cognitive neuropsychologists believe that we can draw general conclusions about the way in which the intact mind and brain work from mainly studying the behaviour of neurological patients rather than their physiology, (McCarthy and Warrington, 1990).
Gazzaniga, M.S., Ivry R.B., & Mangun, G.R. Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind. W. W. Norton & Company (1998).
The human brain is one of, if not the most, complex objects in the known universe. For centuries scientists and researchers have been attempting to unlock the secrets and understand its inner functions, so far humans have discovered only a fraction of its astounding power and ability. This begs the question if such an ambiguous and subjective test could truly determine the intelligence of an individual although not knowing the full potential capabilities of the human brain. Despit...
disadvantage of this test is that it is can be time consuming. Brain imaging is also used to
Other problems with using these noninvasive imaging methods of only few changes of variables in the brain’s activity are that maybe the problem does not reside in the blood, oxygen intake, or glucose utilization. It may be in other factors that we do not observe that is causing the trouble. By being limited to these estimations of brain activity does not really make our effort of correcting the problem that successful.
Stuss and colleagues (2002) argue that clinical neuropsychology at its simplest is “the understanding of brain-behaviour links and their applications to clinical situations”. In their review of the history of clinical neuropsychology, they speak of three fields that have contributed to our current understanding of brain behaviour links including 1) behavioural neurology, 2) neuropsychiatry and 3) clinical neuropsychology. Within these disciplines, a range of techniques are used to investigate loca...
Neuropsychologists study brain behavior relationships under very specific circumstances which are both controlled and standardized. As a general rule, this means using tests which have been validated and which have been shown to have acceptable levels of sensitivity and specificity. This means the test can measure the thing it is trying to measure even when the thing it is trying to measure is only present in small amounts and it also means the test can distinguish the thing it is trying to measure from other things.
Previous studies that have researched the functions of the cerebellum have focused on investigating individuals that have damage to their cerebellum, such as was the case with the Phineas Gage’s frontal lobe study that proved that the frontal lobe served an important role in personality and behavior. Recent studies have had the advantage of new technologies that could significantly aid in identifying whether or not the cerebellum plays a role in specific functions, these include functional imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET imaging, and these recent technological advances have paved the way for new studies that focus on brain region activation. This new method in researching the cerebellum has created new hypotheses for the functions of this crucial brain region, which include but are not limited to cognitive and perceptual functions as well as the already examined motor functions.
The biological perspective looks at how the environment and physical causes influences behavior. In the biological perspective, neuroscience plays a crucial role in explaining how the brain and the nervous system influence behaviors. Neuroscientist describes how the brain process thoughts, emotions, feelings, and how the physical body is driven by these mental processes. This branch of psychology, engages in a variety of research such as the study of genetics, brain cells, and the function of the brain across a period of time. This is done using positron emission tomography (PET). This technique is used with radio active glucose to indicate areas of activity in the brain. Another technique that is done to conduct brain research is functional magnetic resonance imaging (IMR). It uses powerful magnets and radio equipment that provides comprehensive pictures of soft tissues of the brain.