Introduction
The potato cyst nematodes (PCN), Globodera rostochiensis (Woll) and G. pallida (Behrens), are the most economically important and well-studied cyst-forming species within the genus Globodera. Even though both species are well established within the main potato-growing areas of the UK (Gatwick, 1992; Trudgill, 1986), there has been an increasing incidence of G. pallida in England and Wales with 67% of infested fields, as of 1998, comprising purely of G. pallida (Minnis et al., 2002). This increase in G. pallida is suggested to be a pitfall of increased cropping frequency of potato carrying the H1 gene, expressing complete resistance to G. rostochiensis, but is susceptible to G. pallida (Trudgill et al., 1996).
Soil treatment with synthetic nematicides is commonly practiced in the UK (Whitehead, 1998; Whitehead, 1986) and the method has remained a key component of the integrated management of PCN (Haydock et al., 2006). Currently, granular forms of the organophosphate based fosthiazate (as Nemathorin 10G; Syngenta Crop Protection Ltd., Cambridge, UK) and the carbamate based oxamyl (as Vydate 10G; DuPont Crop protection Ltd. Stevenage, UK) are widely applied to manage PCN. Both nematicides are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors () and as such cause paralysis in nematodes (Opperman and Chang, 1990) consequently interfering with nematode activities such as hatching, mobility, host seeking, root infection, feeding, and reproduction (Woods et al., 1999; Hague and Gowen, 1987; Evans and Wright, 1982; Steel, 1982; Greco and Thomason, 1980). A single application of either product at planting has been shown to minimise damage to the crop and reduced population increase (reference). Available records on nematicide usage in Britain showed that potato growing land treated with fosthiazate and oxamyl has increased significantly over the decade leading up to 2010 (https://secure.fera.defra.gov.uk/) and could indicate an increased reliance on these products by growers for improving economic gross margin. Despite the impacts upon the current potato production system, changing EU legislation to safeguard the use of crop protection products (Hillocks, 2012; Anon, 2009) might restrict future availability of these nematicides. And if these substances become unavailable, the Potato Council estimated a two-fold increase in the economic cost of PCN (£26m per annum) (Twinning et al., 2009; Clayton et al., 2008). Besides, the increasing incidence of G. pallida in land treated with these nematicides provides evidence, which would support the suggestion of these substances not being very effective in controlling this species (Whitehead et al., 1994; Evans, 1993; Whitehead, 1992), and that soil treatments might have selected G.
Organic fertilisers and natural pest control methods minimise the impact of viticulture on the environment. In recent years there has been a considerable movement by some growers towards an organic approach. This is as a result of consumer driven trends and pressure to minimise the environmental impact of viticulture.
Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR) is caused by fungus named sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary. It is a common disease in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) field. In Sweden, S. sclerotiorum can cause 60% yield reduction in infected fields (Nordin, 1992). SSR is a major disease of canola in North Dakota. The incidence ranged from 7-19% in North Dakota from 1991 to 1993. ( Lamey, 1995). It occurs almost every year and in most regions of the state. Symptoms on canola appear when flowering appear two to three weeks after infection. Mushy is the first visible symptom. Petals are the first part to be infected, then infection can spread to leaf petioles and finally to stems. Light brown discoloured patches will show on stems, branches and pods. These lesions will expand and the plant surface becomes greyish-white color. When main stem is infected, the canola plant will be easy to lodging. Hard, black structures called sclerotia (survival structure of the pathogen) will be produced on infected tissues after the infection is well-established. It can be found inside of infected stem.
Worms. It's not something that most dog-owners want for their beloved pups; but unfortunately, it's something that happens all too often. Worms and other parasites aren't just disgusting to think about, they are also potentially dangerous. At the first suspicion—or sight—of worms, you should take action quickly, so that your family pet doesn't suffer from upset tummy, grumpy behavior, or death.
In conclusion, this potato affecting disease, Phytophthora Infestins, resulted in killing over a million people in Ireland. In the time, the Irish relied heavily upon the potato crop. This devastating even greatly impacted the people through starvation, migration, and loss of land. The climatic change led to the end of the Phytophthora Infestins affecting the potato crop. The future generation diversified their food sources as a valuable lesson.
Schumann, Gail L., and Cleora J. D'Arcy. Hungry Planet: Stories of Plant Diseases. St. Paul: American Phytopathological Society, 2012. Print.
A question commonly associated with the word insecticides is, what are they? Well I have the answer, insecticides are chemicals that are used to eliminate insects. In the agricultural industry, insecticides are classified into different categories,and the most used is carcinogenic. A carcinogenic insecticide is a substance or agent producing or causing cancer. This is just one of the reason that I believe there are more cons then pros when dealing with a insecticide.. When I was a kid , I can remember my parents taking me and my brother an apple orchard and picking apples. I couldn't wait to eat them until I got home, but we couldn't eat an apple because of what insecticides could be on the apple
Potatoes have become a staple to the diet of humans.They have become so popular since they come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and tastes. They are also cheap and easy to grow, and they taste delicious! Potatoes have changed the course of history in several ways. Who knew that potatoes, just a starchy vegetable, could have helped shape the world in so many ways. First, the Irish Potato Famine killed a million people and caused another million to move out of Ireland. Second, soldiers in the United States army were able to eat potatoes throughout the war. Third, they prevented a famine from occurring in England after there was not a sufficient amount of crops going to sustain the country's cries for food. Many people wonder if potatoes have
Byrd, John D. Jr., Ph.D., David R. Shaw, Eric P. Webster (1997). PesticidesBenefits and Risks [Online]. http://www.ces.msstate.edu/pubs/pub1962.htm [1997, October 7].
Domesticated potatoes were once all belong to one botanical species, Solanum tuberosum; it included thousands of varieties that had diversity in size, shape, color and other characteristics. The potato was first domesticated in the South America Andes, then the Puritans who took Mayflower arrived the land and the First Nations taught them about potatoes. Then the sailors went back to Europe and people started to plant potatoes in Spain, England, France, and many other countries in Europe. Later, potatoes were spread into Africa by the colonists. The crop was once believe to be poisonous by the local farmers who refused to plant them. However, the colonists persuaded the farmers and introduced potatoes as a low-price and high-production crop in substitute of wheat and rice.
Conventional farming practices are responsible for many negative health and environmental issues. One of the main issues is the creation of monocultures in the farming environment. Specifically growing the same species of plants or animals in mass quantities without variation every season is not natural. Monocultures do not exist in nature (Pollan 67). Nature practices diversity and for good reason. In nature and organic farming, if there is a threat to one species, there are others to balance the decrease in the threatened species. Conventional farmers and the modern food industry argue that planting the same crop year after year is convenient and profitable because it cuts down on the different types of farm equipment necessary in production, and initially, in the types of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers needed. However, in this unnatural environment, tremendous amounts of pest...
"Pesticides." Issues & Controversies On File: n. pag. Issues & Controversies. Facts On File News Services, 18 July 2005. Web. 20 May 2011. .
Instead of using pesticides in farming a better alternative would be biological control. This is when a natural predator is released into the crop growing area as a result the number of pests can be reduced.
The new chemicals which are produced to kill these strong pests and weeds may be more harmful to other plants and remove nutrients within the soil, in turn reducing the yield of agricultural crops. The benefits of these characteristics are seen in Argentina according to Pelletier (2010) as they use glyphosphate resistant soybean which allowed the comeback of this crop, as the soil was severely damaged from monoculture (The cultivation of a single crop in a defined area).... ... middle of paper ... ...
Farming practices that do not use pesticides/herbicides are slowly becoming introduced bit biologically created pesticides are not nearly as productive as found in preliminary testing. Biotechnology has shown to have successfully resisted pests in plants that were destroyed by pesticides but still hasn’t proven itself as a better alternative. William Liebhardt Ph.D. is an Agricultural Specialist at the University of California, Davis and he says, “When you start spraying with pesticides, you disrupt the natural balance that exists in nature. As a result, you end up killing beneficial insects, then insects that were not a problem become problems and this happens repeatedly” requiring more and more spraying.
Chemical farming has become such a cultural norm that humans have turned a blind eye to what is really happening behind the scenes and have come to accept what the big manufacturing companies have told us. What these companies don’t want us to know is that when you produce food on a conventional farm you are producing food that is harmful to the environment. Conventional farms use fossil fuel derivative fertilizers to help add nutrients to the soil, but “these are the reason the earth is experiencing dangerous climate changes” (Sustainable Table). Also, the quality and consistency in the crops are lowered when they are planted on a chemical farm because many companies use artificial manure that leads to “artificial nutrition, artificial food, artificial animals and finally artificial