The Insulin and Insulin-like Growth Factor Network in Prostate Cancer
Introduction
Prostate cancer is the most common type of diagnosed cancer among men. According to the American Cancer Society, about 200,000 new cases will be diagnosed and 29,000 men will die from prostate cancer in 20141. Local prostate cancers can be cured with surgery and or radiotherapy. Metastatic diseases, however, have fewer treatment options, especially for patients with castrate-resistant prostate disease2.
The androgens testosterone and DHT are the primary growth factors responsible for the development and growth of the prostate. Other non-androgenic growth factors, such as insulin-like growth factors (IGF) and insulin, are also involved and have been implicated with the progression of prostate cancer2. IGF is a strong mitogen in both normal and cancerous cells, promoting cell cycle progression and DNA synthesis. Insulin carries out its classic metabolic actions in the prostate, while also initiating proliferation and anti-apoptotic effects.
IGF is secreted from the liver after Growth Hormone (GH) stimulation from the pituitary, commonly referred to as the IGF/GH axis. The IGF system consists of two ligands, IGF-1 and IGF-2, and two cell surface receptors IGF1R and IGF2R. IGFs bind to the IGF1R receptor, which is heterotetrameric with two alpha-ligand binding subunits and two transmembrane beta-subunits. Binding of IGF induces auto-phosphorylation of the beta subunits and activation of the protein-tyrosine kinase. IGFs also interact with six high affinity IGF-binding proteins (IGFBP) that modulate IGF activity by inhibition or activation. Upon phosphorylation multiple pathways may become activated, including the MAPK and PI3K pathways, as well a...
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The IGF axis is a complex system implicated in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer, yet the entire mechanism has not been clearly defined. Although IGF-1 and its receptor IGF1R are considered to be oncogenic in prostate cancer, the pathways involved have not been helpful in terms of its therapeutic potential. Here three different studies demonstrated novel pathways and molecules associated with IGF signaling in prostate cancer. Prostate cancerous and noncancerous cells respond to IGF stimulation in very different manners, inducing proliferation and differentiation respectively. This illustrates a clear difference in IGF signaling and potential avenues for targeted therapies. Since IGFs are necessary growth factors in various tissues, utilizing the different signaling response in normal and cancerous cells may be of use.
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is one of the most common ailments that affect aging men. Statistics show that more than half of the entire male population aged 65 have some form of BPH, while about 90 percent of men aged 85 have the condition. Every year, in the United States alone, about a quarter of a million surgeries are performed to correct BPH. As they name implies, BPH is a non-malignant growth of the prostate, the gland that secretes semen, the fluid that transports sperm. Although not harmful, BPH can bring about symptoms that could largely affect the quality of life of its sufferers.
Specifically “TP53, p16INK4A, and SMAD4. The p53 nuclear protein activates transcription of a cyclin kinase inhibitor p21WAF1/CIP1. Following genomic stress, inappropriate growth factor stimulation or expression of oncogenic ras increased expression of p53, and thus p21WAF1/CIP1 resulted in inactivation of specific CDK/cyclin complexes” (MedScape). If this transformed cell can escape internal and external fail-safe mechanisms, receive nutrients, and activate its proliferative program, it can form a mass of cancerous cells. Tumor growth can cause the loss of pancreatic functions. Another characteristic of pancreatic cancer is metastasis happens early in tumor growth, which is most likely responsible for pancreatic cancer’s aggressive
Thyroid hormones are Tyrosine based hormones that require triidothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4). These hormones are produced by the thyroid gland. The Thyroid gland is primarily known for the regulation of metabolism, as well as proper production of T3 and T4. Iodine is the main component that is needed. Dysfunction of Iodine can lead to decreased production of T3 and T4, resulting in enlarged thyroid tissue and even lead to thyroid diseases. In order for the thyroid hormone to function adequate amount of Thyroxine (T4) should be found within the blood. Thyronines on the other hand act on nearly all cells inside the body. Their function is to increase basal metabolic rate, affect protein synthesis, help regulate long bone growth, and increases the body’s ability of being sensitive to catechoalmines. Thyroid hormones are highly essential for proper development and differentiation of all cells within the body. Thyroid hormones also play a role in the regulation of protein, fat, and metabolism of carbohydrates and vitamins. Various physiological and pathological effects serve to influence thyroid hormone synthesis.
Prostate cancer has been the number one diagnosed cancer today. According to the World Health Organization, approximately one in every ten American men will develop prostate cancer during his lifespan. This cancer has been very common in the last few years. American Cancer Society reported over 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer. Huge number of population suffered severely. The prostate is significant for reproduction. It helps the substances that are involved in fertilization and transporting of sperm as well as survival. Prostate tumor is developed in the prostate gland, which is found in the men’s reproductive system. Prostate is the size of a walnut, which is located inferiorly in the penis and anterior to the rectum. It contains the connective tissue, which includes the glandular and fibrous tissues. This tumor starts to develop during their adolescent year due to the control of the male reproductive hormones. When the tumor starts to develop, it begins at the urethra, which is a tube that releases the urine from the bladder. The tumor is a slow development yet it is contagious to the other parts of the body, such as it does affect the pelvic bones, lungs, liver, and the lower vertebrae (Zenka, 2009).
Radiation therapy is a complex treatment plan to treat cancer in patients. Its treatment can be used alone or in conjunction with surgery or chemotherapy. Radiation therapy is delivered by a team of individuals who specialize in the treatment of cancer. There are several ways in which the radiation can be delivered to the patient with specialized equipment. Radiation therapy is an exciting field of study that can be beneficial to patients who are affected by cancer.
The body is composed of cells. Normally, these cells divide at a composed and calculated manner. If cells die or are destroyed, the body creates more cells through the division of existing cells. However, occasionally, problems with some cells in the body may occur.
Cancer. The word by itself can conjure images of severely ill and frail people attached to IV medications and chemotherapy drugs as they cling to life in a hospital bed. Other illustrations and pictures depict unrecognizable, misshaped organs affected by abnormal cells that grow out of control, spread, and invade other parts of the body. Cancer studies show that close to one-half of all men and one-third of all women in the United States will be diagnosed with cancer during their lives. Today, millions of people are living with cancer or have had cancer. As patients are newly diagnosed with their specific type of cancer, whether it be breast, lung, prostate, skin, or blood cancer, etc., each patient has to consider what will happen with their future health care plan and who will be involved in their long journey from treatment to recovery. Once diagnosed, cancer patients become the focal point and the center of all activity in terms of care but cancer not only physically invades the patient’s body and well-being, it goes beyond the patient and significantly affects the emotional stability and support from from their loved ones and caregivers. Based on the insidious nature of cancer and typically late detection of malignant diseases, family members (either spouses, children, parents, other relatives, and friends) often become the patient's main caregiver. These caregivers, also known as informal caregivers, provide the cancer patient with the majority of the support outside of the medical facility or hospital environment and become the primary person to provide various types of assistance. They provide the physical support with bathing and assisting in activities of daily living, they become emotional ...
Testicular cancer is only present in males because only males have testicles. About 8,820 cases of testicular cancer are diagnosed every year. About 380 men die from testicular cancer each year. This is actually a very high survival rate. Also, the risk of a man dying from testicular cancer is about 1 in 5,000 because it is highly treatable and sometimes can be curable. It seems that the group most affected by testicular cancer is middle aged men, the average age to be diagnosed is 33. Only 6% of testicular cancer cases occur in children and teens, and about 7% of testicular cancer cases are men above 55 years old. All in all, testicular cancer is a type of cancer only in males and starts off in the testicles. It is not that common and the survival rate is very high because of the technology and doctors of today.
Cancer cells have spread outside the covering (capsule) of the prostate to tissues surrounding it. The seminal vesicles may also have cancer in them.
Breast cancer has always been a common thread among the women of my family; especially on my mother’s side, including my Grandmother whom passed away due to this disease before I could ever meet her. More so, my mother was gravely affected by this disease early in my life. Thankfully, she was able to stop the cancer from spreading; the doctors were able to find the cancerous cells and remove them. Due to this grave, but powerful impact on my life, I have been determined to becoming a biomedical scientist to assist on the research and treatment of this deadly disease. Although this acts as my principal driver, to study in this field, I have also been intrigued and driven by the idea that I could aid lower setting regions to receive health benefits using studies in translational medicine and
Late December 2015 was, at the time, the worst month for me. It was around 8'o clock in the evening, the sun had set and the moon has risen to its’ fullest. I could smell the sweet aroma from the kitchen. I walked passed and into the living room, which was messy from all of our christmas decor. My mom yelled down the hall to my brothers.
Swan, S.H., F. Liu, J.W. Overstreet, C. Brazil, and N.E. Skakkebaek. "Growth Hormones Fed to
Breast Cancer As defined by Majure, breast cancer is an “uncontrolled growth of abnormal breast cells” (Majure: 110). It is also one of the cancers that women fear the most. Not only do women get diagnosed with breast cancer, men do too. However, it isn't as bad, or as common, in men as it is in women, so doctors don’t recommend screening for men.
I had the pleasure to interview my grandma, Olga Hernandez. She was born on November 8, 1951 in Cuba. She worked in a workshop making clocks. After she retired, she took care of me while my mom worked. I consider her to be my second mom because she lived with me for eight years. She taught me love, discipline, manners, etc. My grandma is: strong, beautiful, caring, and passionate. Most importantly, she is a breast cancer survivor. I chose to interview my grandma because October is Breast Cancer Awareness Month. I couldn’t think of a better time to do this interview. I like her story because although it’s sad, it has a happy ending. It shows you that no matter how hard things get, there’s always light at the end of the tunnel.
For most, the primary fears associated with cancer are connected to the effects of treatments. If the patient is diagnosed when the cancer is still in the early stages, more than likely surgery is the appropriate treatment. However if the cancer has developed into an advanced stage, a more drastic treatment is necessary.