Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic drug used to treat treatment resistant schizophrenia and in patients who are unresponsive to or intolerant to other neuroleptics. Schizophrenia is a long term mental health condition that causes a range of different psychological symptoms including: hallucinations, delusions, disordered ideas and behavioural changes.1
Atypical antipsychotics such as risperidone and olanzapine are first line treatment for schizophrenia, however clozapine is used as a second line treatment because of its side effect profile, the most serious being agranulocytosis.2 Clozapine has demonstrated to be more effective in reducing symptoms than the older typical antipsychotics but the patient would need regular blood tests and safety monitoring to minimise and manage clozapine’s side effects. Essali et al investigated clozapine against other neuroleptic medication. It was shown that blood problems occurred more frequently in participants receiving clozapine (3.2%) compared with those given typical antipsychotic drugs (0%).2,3
Patients require full monitoring when taking clozapine; blood tests are taken every week in the first 6 to 12 months of starting treatment, then every 2 weeks for 6 months and every 4 weeks for the duration of their treatment. This ensures that any complications are detected early and treated as soon as possible. Another serious adverse effect is myocarditis which presents in the first month of starting clozapine. Echocardiograms are recommended every 6 months to eliminate cardiac damage. Patients also need to have their fasting blood glucose monitored, as weight gain is commonly experienced. Clozapine, however does not alter levels of prolactin, whereas olanzapine and risperidone did.2,3,4
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... of PEG improve solubility and are compatible with each other, therefore could be tested to improve the solubility of clozapine. The maximum concentration of PG allowed is 35%v/v, as it causes haemolysis in humans. On the basis of metabolic and toxicological data, the WHO set an acceptable daily intake of up to 25mg/kg body-weight. Concentrations of 15-30%v/v have shown to improve solubility of drugs.24
Ethanol has shown to improve the solubility of drugs; however the use of alcohol is restricted due the toxic side effects such as liver damage. In pharmaceutical formulations, the maximum concentration to be used in adults is 10%v/v and 5%v/v in children. Therefore ethanol will not be considered to be used when formulating this clozapine solution, as a high amount of alcohol would be needed to display solubility properties and it is not recommended for children.24,25
As previously stated, Lexapro is a Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are by far, the most frequently prescribed antidepressants ("Selective serotonin reuptake," 2013). SSRI’s work by increasing the levels of serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter in the brain (Mandal, n.d.). Serotonin regulates some aspects of the brain including mood, sleep and emotion (Mandal, n.d.). People with depression have low levels of serotonin so the SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, which means a greater amount of serotonin than usual remains available in the synaptic space between the two nerves (Mandal, n.d.). SSRIs relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety, are rather safe and generally cause less side effects than other types of antidepressants ("Selective serotonin reuptake," 2013). Lexapro tablets are film coated, round tablets containing esxitalopram oxalate in strengths equal to 5mg, 10mg, and 20 mg ("Lexapro," 2004).
Stahl, S. M., & Mignon, L. (2010). Antipsychotics: Treating psychosis, mania and depression (2nd ed.).
Clozapine is used on a limited basis because of the risk of agranullocytosis, where white blood cells are destroyed faster than they are produced, causing the individual to be prone to other illnesses. Two other drugs, either one typical and one atypical, or two atypical medications are used and deemed ineffective before clozapine is used due to the this serious side effect, agranullocytosis. Even thought this risk happens to be small, 1% to 2%, the drug is normally viewed in the psychiatric field as a method of last resort.(Kentridge, 1995) The most common explanation for what occurs in the brain of a schizophrenic is the dopamine hypothesis, where certain areas of the brain have excessive activity at certain dopamine receptors.(Kalat, 2004) This theory will be a reoccurring theme when explaining how clozapine interacts with the body.
Treating depressive and bipolar disorders with antidepressants remains a popular option in clinical practice. Most clinicians choose the drug or class of drugs, usually selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, SSRI's, that is most effective and best tolerated with fewer severe side effects. These drugs are beneficial because they specifically target serotonin-based areas of the brain without affecting other neurotransmitter systems. SSRI's largely replaced tricyclic antidepressants which work by blocking the absorption (reuptake) of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, thereby increasing the levels of these two neurotransmitters in the brain. Tricyclic antidepressants present severe side effects and thus are usually only used when other treatments have failed. If SSRI's or tricyclics are not effective Monoamine oxidase inhibitors may be prescribed. MAOI's, enhance tyramine to increase norepinephrine and serotonin. While taking MAOI's you must abstain from foods and alcohol that contain tyramine such as, yogurt, aged cheese, and substances such as cold medications. This is because a potential toxic reaction could occur. Additionally, other antidepressants may be utilized such as Wellbutrin (bupropion) an NDRI-
Basically, serotonin levels will provide various benefits regarded to health and mental. It is also called feel good chemical which will apply benefits to both biological and psychological functions. Most of this supplement’s application is found primarily in digestive tract and blood plates. Only small amount of this supplement will be served for its purpose in central nervous systems and brains. If users says that they are in way to achieve serotonin levels, then it is clearly understood that the small percentage will exists in the brain. It is capable of delivering various benefits regarding to mental function and maintenance of serotonin levels of the brain. The neurotransmitter has various things to do
Risperdal Risperidone is an atypical antipsychotic used to alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is defined by its effects in altering perception, thoughts, or consciousness called hallucinations or delusions. It affects about 1% of the population, with about 2 million people affected in the United States. About 50% of those affected become severely and permanently disabled and dependent upon public assistance. Schizophrenics make up about 10% of the totally disabled population and as much as 14% of the homeless.
-Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis SM, Davis CE, Lebowitz BD, Severe J, Hsiao JK. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med. 2005. Web.
This essay will begin by describing the major symptoms of catatonic schizophrenia, outlining and critically considering the difficulties associated with diagnosis. It will then describe and evaluate the biological explanations of catatonic schizophrenia including genetics, brain structure and biochemical explanations. Next it will discuss and evaluate the psychosocial explanations of catatonic schizophrenia including psychodynamic and cognitive explanations. Finally it will describe and evaluate the major approaches to the treatment of catatonic schizophrenia.
According to Gamble and Brennan (2000), the effectiveness of medication for schizophrenia to relieve patients from psychotic symptoms is limited. Although patients have adequate medication, some received little or no benefit from it and almost half of them still experience psychotic symptoms. They are also more likely to suffer relapse (Gamble and Brennan, 2000). Furthermore, Valmaggia, et al. (2005) found that 50% of patients who fully adhere to anti-psychotic medication regimes still have ongoing positi...
Discuss the possible drug and excipient-related constrains of the formulation (no identity of the drug was given to you at this
Acid is produced naturally in your stomach to help you digest food and to kill bacteria. This acid irritates the stomach lining so our body produces a natural mucus barrier which protects it. Sometimes this barrier may be damaged thus allowing the acid to damage the stomach causing inflammation, ulcers and other conditions. Other times, there may be a problem with the muscular band at the top of the stomach that keeps the stomach tightly closed and this allows the acid to escape and irritate the oesophagus. This is called 'acid reflux' and can cause heartburn and/or oesophagitis. Proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole stop cells in the lining of the stomach from producing too much acid. This can help prevent ulcers from forming or assist the healing process. By decreasing the amount of acid, they can also help to reduce acid reflux related symptoms such as heartburn.
• Dependency on the medications when taking a course for treatment, feeling sick after discontinuing use and wanting more of the drug.
Alcohol: The drug name is ethyl alcohol, used in beer, to liquor and wine. This is only swallowed. It mainly causes mild stimulation, lowered inhibitions, drowsiness, emotional volatility, impaired memory, loss of consciousness, euphoria and etc.. This drug also leads to many other health risks. Example, liver and heart disease, depression, neurologic deficits and addiction.
If prescribed a neuroleptic drug, Nash would most likely follow in the footsteps of other patients suffering from schizophrenia and decide that the side effects of the medication are more unbearable the symptoms of the disorder itself. New drugs are being made in order to address the issue of undesirable and intolerable side effects of conventional antipsychotic drugs.
The use of illegal drugs in the United States and other countries around the world is one of the biggest problems in today community. Illegal drugs are drugs that are restricted by the government. Moreover, some medical drugs have chemicals that can help people with pain and stress. But when people are under the influence of illicit drugs, they can experience many side effects such as: liver cancer, heart, and brain disease. Illegal drugs are being used by many types of people around the world; they cost a large amount of money and negatively affect people both psychologically and physically.