1.1.1 Enzyme
Enzymes are biological catalysts, chemical reactions. Enzyme may act are called substrates and molecules called enzyme converts these into different products. Enzyme are used commercially, for example, synthesis of antibiotics. The study of enzyme is called enzymology.
French chemist Anselme payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase, in 1833.The first used of term enzyme German physiologist in 1877.An enzyme found in tears, saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria. viruses contain enzyme for infecting cells, like the influenza virus neuraminidase.An important of enzyme is in the digestive systems of animals.Different enzyme digest different food substances.
Enzymes are used in the chemical industry
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1) Guaiacyl Lignin:- It is largely polymerization product of conferral alcohol. Guaiacyl lignin occurs in almost, all softwood.
2) Guaiacyl syringyl lignin:- The typical lignin of hardwood, this type of lignin is co-polymer of coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol. The ratio varing from 4:1 to 1:10 for the two monomeric unites.
3) P-hydroxyphenyl lignin:- Compression wood, which has a high excessive proportion of phenylpropare units of the P-hydrophenyl type in addition to the normal quaiacyl
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The lignin located in the secondary wall of hardwood fibers has a high constant of syrigly unites whereas larger amounts of guaiacyl unites are present in the middle lamella lignin. The vessels in birch seem to contain only guaiacyl, lignin, whereas syrigyl lignin predominates in parenchyma cell.
Polymer properties of lignin The limitation for for studing the macro molecular properties for lignin:-
It will cause during the isolation of lignin cause degradation. Low stability in most solvent. The polymer properties of lignin is depend on its location site in the cell wall. The method for characting the polymer properties of lignin:-
- Ultra centrifugation
- Light scattering
- Vapor pressure osmometion
Lignin plants may significant biological roles in plants, the various function of lignin is:-
- Lignin transports liquids all over the plant tissues.
- The lignin in plants also works as a barrier against attack by insects and fungi
- The lignin in plants is less hydrophilic compare to cellulose a hemicellulose, it present the absorption of water.
- Lignin is responsible for providing construction of plants, as like grasses bushes and rigid trees.
- In contact, some mosses don’t contain any lignin as all.
Commercial use of
Each of these Pennsylvania evergreen species provides a variety of resources unique to their own species. Whether it be producing timbe...
because this is what makes the plant "stand up" and acts as a form of
Redwoods were named for the color of their bark and heartwood. These trees have a high resistance to fungus and diseases due to the high tanin content in the wood. The dense, fibrous bark has an even higher content, and acts as an insulator from periodic fires which have plagued the countryside for centuries. Though these trees are immense, they have delicate foliage. The needles are narrow and sharp-pointed, and combine to form feathery sprays. The cones are an inch long and typically contain fourteen to twenty-four seeds. The older trees offspring sprout form their parents' roots in order to take advantage of the established root system.
Molecules called enzymes help catalyze reactions. A substrate is the molecule on which the enzyme acts. Most enzymes are proteins that have grooves in them called active sites that recognizes the substrate.
Enzymes have the ability to act on a small group of chemically similar substances. Enzymes are very specific, in the sense that each enzyme is limited to interact with only one set of reactants; the reactants are referred to as substrates. Substrates of an enzyme are the chemicals altered by enzyme-catalysed reactions. The extreme specific nature of enzymes are because of the complicated three-dimensional shape, which is due to the particular way the amino acid chain of proteins folds.
The hop plant has several structurally distinctive properties. The root is stout and perennial. The stem that arise from it every year is of a twining nature, reaching a great length, flexible and very tough, angular and prickly, with a tenacious fiber. This fiber has been explored in the manufacturing of a white, durable cloth. The cloth is not of wide use because the fibers are so difficult to separate. Normally, the stems require to be steeped in water a whole winter before they can be utilized. Paper has also been made from the stem of the vine. The leaves are heart-shaped and lobed, on stalks, which are oppositely placed on the stem. The leaves have three to seven lobes and are dark green in color with finely toothed edges. (5)
To investigate the amount of oxygen foam (cm) produced by the enzyme catalase when it breaks down hydrogen peroxide in the animal (liver, milk, honey) and plant cells(potato, purple cabbage) into oxygen and water
extracted from the stem and used to make rope, stout fabrics, paper, fuel, food, plastic, composite
It is synthesised in plants, algae and even in some animals, and it can also be synthesised by some bacteria. Cellulose, the major chemical component of fiber wall. Cellulose has a strong tendency to form intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonds by the hydroxyl groups on these linear cellulose chains, which stiffen the straight chain and promote aggregation into a crystalline structure and give cellulose a multitude of partially crystalline fiber structures and morphologies. Hemicelluloses are a group of heterogeneous polymers that play a supporting role in the
Aside from lignin’s obvious strengthening purpose it can also help plants in other ways. For instance, lignin contains specialized water conduct...
In the lab exercise regarding plant structure and function, we examined slides containing the different kinds of roots (monocot, dicot). We labeled the parts and pointed out the different roles of each in the plant structure. Also, we examined monocot stems and dicot stems in order to familiarize ourselves with its external and internal structures. We sketched and labeled the parts of the stem and looked closely at the positions of each part. In the last part of the lab, we classified leaves into different kinds according to their leaf venation, bases of leaves, and apices of leaves. As an additional exercise, we sketched 20 animals and classified them according to phylum and class. We were also able to discover the scientific and common names of the animals. Overall, the exercises we did enabled us to familiarize ourselves with plant structure thus, gaining a better understanding for plant life and its importance.
Enzymes are protein molecules that are made by organisms to catalyze reactions. Typically, enzymes speeds up the rate of the reaction within cells. Enzymes are primarily important to living organisms because it helps with metabolism and the digestive system. For example, enzymes can break larger molecules into smaller molecules to help the body absorb the smaller pieces faster. In addition, some enzyme molecules bind molecules together. However, the initial purpose of the enzyme is to speed up reactions for a certain reason because they are “highly selective catalysts” (Castro J. 2014). In other words, an enzyme is a catalyst, which is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without undergoing changes. Moreover, enzymes work with
Lignin is the substance that makes plants “woody.” The name lignin originates from the Latin noun “lignum” that means “wood.” Most plants, but not all contain lignin. Lignin found within lignified plants differ in distribution among the parts of the plant, as well as different species of plants (Harkin1969). Lignin is the generic term for a large group of polymers. These polymers accumulate within secondarily thickened walls, making them rigid and resistant. Lignin evolved when plants began adapoting to terrestrial life. Lignin was needed to provide them with structural support that is needed for erect growth. Recent studies have shown the presence of lignin in the marine red alga, Calliarthron, which diverged from vascular plants more than one billion years ago (Vanholme et al. 2010). Lignin is a major component of the cell wall in vascular plants and provides support for plants to stand upright and enables the xylem to withstand negative pressure during water transport. Although lignin is significant for plant growth, this component can negatively affect humans. The presence of lignin limits access to cell wall polysaccharides and can affect humans by its use in livestock feed, lignocellulosic biofuel production, and paper manufacturing. Because of lignin’s significance in plant and human life, it is one of the most extensively studied subjects in biochemistry (Chapple and Li 2010).
...ure. Air pollution an acid deposition has led to problem for lichens on barks, because the tree has become acidic. Lichens and acid doesn’t mix at all, all of the acidity from the rainfall mixed with the sulfur oxide is not good for the lichens, the lichens end up dying from the particles mixed in with the rain. Lichen is a type of symbiotic organism which means it interacts between two different organisms living in close physical association; typically they help each other out. In other words they can share a mutual relationship between one another. Lichens are a special type of specie in its own way. They can also help measure toxins in radioactive metals because they bind these substances in there fungal threads where they concentrate with it over long periods of time. Basically lichens could be used for just about anything that people could use them for.
Trees have fascinated humans for thousands of years and have played a major role in mythologies all over the world, largely because of their utility, longevity, and often impressive stature. Additionally, trees play a major role in the ecology of the Earth by reducing erosion and moderating the climate by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing large amounts of carbon in their tissues (Kozlowski 1971). Trees have copious uses for all different types of plants and animals; food, shelter, fuel, and timber being a few of the most common uses. There is no universally recognized precise definition for trees. They are not a distinct taxonomic group, but rather a collection of plant species that have independently evolved similar traits. The most characteristic of these traits is a wooden trunk and branches which are used as a way to tower above other plants. One of the broader definitions of trees classifies them as: “any plants with the general form of an elongated stem or trunk, which supports the photosynthetic leaves or branches some distance above the ground,”(Tokuhisa). More generally, trees are often defined by height, with smaller plants being classified as shrubs, though the minimum height varies widely. Another specification used to differentiate between trees is the presence of a wooden trunk, although this excludes herbaceous trees such as bananas and papayas (What is a tree?). Despite being herbaceous and never producing wood, palms and bamboos may produce a wood-like substance by lignifying cells produced through primary growth, and are able to stay tall and rigid due to cellular water pressure called “turgor” (What is a tree?). Trees exist in two different groups of vascular plants, the gymnosperms and the angiosperm...