ECAP is the one of the severe plastic deformation process in which the material is subjected to the high plastic deformation without changing its cross-sectional area [1]. This imparts high strength, hardness with high effective toughness. There is great amount of refinement of grains and increase in the complexity of the microstructure which imparts high strength, hardness and toughness to the material [2].The processing of material by ECAP has undergone active development in several areas. These areas include development of many Nano-scale metals and commercial production of semi-finished products within the ultra-fine grained structures. The application of ECAP is currently under the investigation for many different materials ranging from aluminum, copper, magnesium and nickel alloys. The conventional ECAP die consist of two channels which intersect at 90 or 120 degrees, where the materials is passed through one …show more content…
The cross-sectional area can be square, rectangular or circular in shape. The inner surfaces of the die are highly polished and lubricated for easy flow of material and to reduce surface defects due to friction. The channel angel (φ) and the curvature angle (ψ) play an important role in inducing strain in the material. Mostly the channel angle of 90 or 120 degree is used. The material to be processed is made similar to the cross-section of the channel. The material is inserted in the inlet channel and extruded out from the outlet channel. The deformation occurs at the die corner as the billet is pressed. The ECAP technique is always conducted with the high plunger speed. In case of hard materials, the billet is preheated to enable easy deformation and to reduce the plunger force. The ECAP is now being used for manufacture of ultrafine grained structures of different materials. The products made from ECAP process include fasteners, plates
We use metals to construct all kinds of structures, from bridges to skyscrapers to elevators. The strength as well as durability of materials that are crafted out of metal make the materials ideal not only for construction but also for many other applications.
For the other material ASTM A216 Gr WCB same pressure of 16 Mpa is applied and the stress developed is approximately as similar to the connecting rod made with material of cast iron. Figure no. 9 indicates the maximum and minimum stress developed in connecting rod at small & big end. The equivalent stress maximum and minimum values are 71.347 MPa and 4.4955e-5 MPa respectively.
But the grain size ranges between 3 μm to 6 μm, 3 μm to 8 μm and 4 μm to 9 μm for 4 mm, 6 mm and 8 mm plates respectively. Higher polygon pin face edges approach circular pin, this vanishes the pulse formation in stirring. This leads to distorted grains due to decrease in dynamic area or lack of sweeping between tool and material. Whereas a low number of polygon pin face edges generates higher dynamic area. This shows the coarse grains relatively. The grain size ranges between 5 μm to 7 μm, 6 μm to 8 μm and 7 μm to 9 μm for 4 mm, 6 mm and 8 mm plates
This new form was called hydraulic die-forming. Hydraulic stems from the Greek word hydro meaning water and aulos meaning tube (McCreight, 2004). In today’s society, hydraulic pressing and stamping of dies are used for everything from making small pots and pans to the more extravagant automobile body models. Another use that has recently developed is the more artistic use of, producing form in silver and gold. In order to achieve this smaller, cheaper scale of die-forming experiment were conducted by Richard Thomas and Ruth Girard, which eventually led to the development of the pourable epoxy steel...
The machinability of copper and copper alloys is improved by lead, sulfur, tellurium, and zinc while it deteriorates when tin and iron are added. Lead in brass alloys with concentrations around 2 wt%, improves machinability by acting as a microscopic chip breaker, and tool lubricant, while they increase the brittleness of the alloy [17]. Lead additions are used to improve machinability. The lead is insoluble in the solid brass and segregates as small globules that help the swarf to break up in to small pieces and may also help to lubricate the cutting tool action. The addition of lead is however, affect cold ductility which may control both the way in which material is produced and the extent to which it can be post-formed after machining
Milling offers the advantages of being highly precise and having much smoother surface finish (surface roughness of easily around 1 µm ) compared to powder bed fusion additive manufacturing (layer thickness in the range of 20 µm and above; surface roughness of 15 µm and above ). Flat surfaces and sharp corners can be obtained with CNC milling. Similarly, features such as threads and holes are more accurately created through
Polyethylene (PE) is one of the most commonly used polymers which can be identified into two plastic identification codes: 2 for high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and 4 for low density polyethylene (LDPE). Polyethylene is sometimes called polyethene or polythene and is produced by an addition polymerisation reaction. The chemical formula for polyethylene is –(CH2-CH2)n– for both HDPE and LDPE. The formation of the polyethylene chain is created with the monomer ethylene (CH2=CH2).
Aluminum is one of a number of soft metals that scientists call "poor" metals. It can be shaped and twisted into any form. It can be rolled into thick plates for armored tanks or into thin foil for chewing gum wrappers. It may be drawn into a wire or made into cans. Aluminum is a generally popular metal because it does not rust and it resists wear from weather and chemicals. (Bowman, 391) Aluminum is an element. Its atomic number is thirteen and its atomic weight is usually twenty-seven. Pure aluminum melts at 660.2ºC and boils at 2500ºC. Its density is 2.7 grams per cube centimeter. Aluminum is never found uncombined in nature. (Bowman, 391) Aluminum is a very useful metal that is light, easy to shape and can be strong. This makes aluminum one of the most used metals in the world, right behind iron and steel. (Geary, 185) In its pure state, aluminum is quite weak compared to the other metals. However, its strength can be greatly increased by adding small amounts of alloying elements, heat-treating, or cold working. Only a small percentage of aluminum is used in its pure form. It is made into such items as electrical conductors, jewelry, and decorative trim for alliances and cars. A combination of the three techniques has produced aluminum alloys that, pound for pound, are stronger than structural steel. Some common metals used in alloys for aluminum are copper, magnesium and zinc.(Walker, 31) The added elements give the aluminum strength and other properties. (Newmark, 41) Aluminum is one of the lightest metals. It weighs about 168.5 pounds per cubic foot, about a third as much as steel which weighs 487 pounds per cubic foot. (Neely, 214) As a result, aluminum has replaced steel for many uses. For example, some ...
Carbon-fiber-reinforced-polymer (CFRP) is a composite polymer made up of carbon fibers and a binding polymer. The binding polymer can be a thermoset resin or thermoplastic polymer(s). Examples of thermoplastic polymers that can bind with carbon fiber to make CFRP are polyester, nylon, or vinyl ester. A thermoset resin that can combine with the carbon fiber to make CFRP is epoxy. The combination of the carbon fibers and a thermoset resin or thermoplastic polymer producing CFRP results in a light weight fiber-reinforced plastic that is tremendously strong. Depending on the binding polymer, CFPRs have a wide range of applications and are used when a light weight material with high rigidity and strength are required.
...ections in a car’s body in white (BIW). Sheet steel blanks are inserted into a press, the outer edge of the sheet is clamped and the sheet stamped between a male and a female die. To obtain a deep section requires extra metal, which is pulled from the clamped region; the part is then described as ‘drawn’. Very deep shapes, such as door inners or spare-wheel wells, are ‘deep drawn’ and require the most formable grades of steel. The higher-strength steel used in modern cars requires presses with higher press forces. Press Hardening, also known as die-quenching, is similar to press forming, but in the press-hardening process the steel is first heated to 9500 C and simultaneously pressed and quenched in the die to produce a very strong martensitic steel. Roll forming is a process where sheet metal is progressively folded to shape through a series of rollers.
Some steel containers are made through deforming the steel by means of extruding, forging, spin forming, ...
Aluminum is an element in the boron group with a symbol of Al, and an atomic number of 13. Aluminum is a very soft metal when pure but becomes strong and hard when alloyed, a malleable metal with a silvery gray color. Aluminum is a very reactive element so it is found in nature combined with other elements. Aluminum resists corrosion by the formation of a self-protecting oxide coating. Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, following oxygen and silicon. It makes up approximately 8% by weight of the Earth’s surface. Although this is evident, it is also apparent that aluminum is never found by itself in nature. All of the earth’s aluminum has combined with other elements to form compounds and in order to create new aluminum products; it has to be taken out of that specific compound. Aluminum does not rust like other elements, therefore it always remains strong and shiny, which means reused aluminum is almost identical to a brand new piece of metal. An electrochemical process creates aluminum. An electrochemical process is “the direct process end use in which electricity is used to cause a chemical transformation” ( E.I.A. Government). Major uses of electrochemical processes occur in the aluminum industry in which alumina is reduced to molten aluminum metal and oxygen, where than the aluminum can be used into making several different materials. Electrochemical processes, although very useful, can have serious environmental consequences. To help reduce the consequences that the production of aluminum creates, the idea of aluminum recycling comes into play.
Metals possess many unique fundamental properties that make them an ideal material for use in a diverse range of applications. Many common place things know today are made from metals; bridges, utensils, vehicles of all modes of transport, contain some form of metal or metallic compound. Properties such as high tensile strength, high fracture toughness, malleability and availability are just some of the many advantages associated with metals. Metals, accompanied by their many compounds and alloys, similar properties, high and low corrosion levels, and affects, whether negative or positive, are a grand force to be reckoned with.
Also, micro machining was performed on the substrate to improve the part’s feature resolution (cavities for electrical components and channels for the inks).