Disinfection Byproducts Resulting from Swimming Pool Chlorination
Swimming is commonly associated as a healthy physical activity providing excellent exercise to patrons. In fact, in the United States, swimming has become the second most popular recreational activity after walking (Olsen, 2007). Swimming has become so popular due to modern advancements in the disinfection of water; public swimming pools were never so enjoyed prior to the early 1900s, however, due to thousands of people dying from waterborne illnesses (Rivera, 2009). During this time, the disinfection of water, both for drinking and swimming, became a prevalent factor in ensuring human health. This advancement in water quality was well received for most of the 20th century. The United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) went on to proclaim this advancement as one of the ten greatest health advancements of the 20th century (Olsen, 2007; Rivera, 2009).
Despite the overall success related to pool water’s disinfection through chlorine use, recent studies have questioned its benefits. In 1974, scientists first discovered that the halogens used to disinfect water could combine with organic materials and form disinfection byproducts (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs), and chloroform (Olsen, 2007). Naturally, researchers quickly began to investigate the possibilities of DBPs and their effects on human health. Thus far, scientists have attempted to compile a comprehensive list of DBPs that may occur within chlorinated pool water and determine which detection methods are most accurate (Richardson et al., 2010). Another area of extensive research relates to the health effects that DBPs have on humans both from long term and short term exposure (...
... middle of paper ...
...and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118(11), 1523-1530. doi:10.1289/ ehp.1001965
Rivera, S. B. (2009, November 1). Progress in pool chemistry research
understanding disinfection byproducts and combined chlorine. Water Conditioning & Purification, 10-12. Retrieved from http://www.miox.com/ applications/0911Rivera.pdf
Your disinfection team: Chlorine and pH. (2010, April 12). Retrieved March 4, 2012, from Center for Disease Control and Prevention website: http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/swimming/pools/disinfection-team-chlorine-ph.html
Zwiener, C., Richardson, S. D., DeMarini, D. M., Grummt, T., Glauner, T., & Frimmel, F. H. (2007, January 15). Drowning in disinfection byproducts? Assessing swimming pool water. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(2), 363-372. doi:10.1021/es062367v
Disinfection is applied in water as well as wastewater treatment as a finishing step so as to destroy pathogens but the cause of concern regarding the disinfection process is the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Natural organic matter (NOM) in water has been considered as the predominant DBP precursors. Disinfectants are powerful oxidants that oxidize the organic matter present in water forming DBPs. Chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramines are the most common disinfectants used nowadays and each produces its own suite of chemical DBPs in finished drinking water (Richardson, 2003). DBPs so formed pose a threat to human health because of their potential to cause cancer and reproductive/developmental effects. Most developed nations have regulated concentration of DBPs so as to minimize exposure to potentially harmful DBPs while maintaining adequate disinfection and control of targeted
The city’s water resources being a river, ground water and a reservoir are prone to having hazardous pathogens harmful to anyone who consumes water from the plant. Chlorination in water treatment is a common practice which is used to disinfect water from disease, however, it is known that when microbes attach to or are within particles of water they are protected from chlorine treatments. An alternate solution to chlorine is chloramine. Chloramine is the addition of ammonia to the chlorine compound. Once chloramine becomes in contact with water it is known as monochloramine. According to Gerstein (pg 719. 1931) and Holwerda (pg 719.1928) the germicidal properties were less when ammonia in chloramine was present. Monochloramine lasts a lot longer in water than chlorine therefore protecting the water from disease for a longer period of time. The water supply network consists of numerous pipes that potentially carry disease in them.
...s are dangerous and toxic. Despite the precaution taken in supplementing these chemicals into water, there still exists the probability that these hazardous chemicals will be reproduced by reactions with bodily fluids in areas where they may cause harm to the individual. The production of these chemicals is outlined in the previous section on Chemistry.
Chlorine is the most common chemical used to treat and sterilize swimming pool water. When chlorine (in the chemical form of calcium hypochlorite) is added to a swimming pool it destroys pathogens and oxidizes materials such as chloramines. When chlorine is added to water a week acid called hypochlorous acid (HOCL) and chloride ions (CL-) are produced. The hypochlorous acid is what gives water the ability to oxidize and sterilize and disinfect the water.
One of the ways that trichloroethylene can be introduced to the body is by breathing, eating, or drinking the contaminant, or possibly if there is some contact between the trichloroethylene and the skin ("ATSDR - Public Health Statement: Trichloroethylene (TCE)", 2017). Even though one may be exposed to the contaminant this does not automatically mean that the individual will proceed to have any of the illness or side effects that are caused by Trichloroethylene. There are many factors that will determine if in fact any harm occurred. Some of the factors include the possibility of the individual having been exposed or handle any other type of chemical. Other factors that play a big role on whether or not Trichloroethylene caused many of the diseases or side effects such as your age, sex, family trait, diet. According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry when Trichloroethylene is introduced into any water system it breaks down within the water and is removed through the process of evaporation thus causing it to be in the air ("ATSDR - Public Health Statement: Trichloroethylene (TCE)", 2017). Once the Trichloroethylene is introduced into groundwater it is possible for it to remain for long periods of time since it is not easily able to
While detectable amount of 1,1-dichloroethane is reported in both public and private water supplies in the U.S., however, its relatively low concentration in the water appears to raise less concerns compared to the exposure route through air (inhalation). This may be especially the case for urban, industrial waste hazard areas, where higher concentration level of 1,1-dichloroethane were reported (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1989).One may want to avoid being in contact with highly concentrated 1,1-dichloroethane either through direct exposure to body parts, such as skin, mouth and eyes, or through inhalation, in order to prevent damage to the Central Nervous System and/or other important body organs such as lung, liver and kidneys. Much does not seem to have been investigated, however, as to the exact extent of the toxicity of 1,1-dichloroethane, compared to a more toxic form of the HOC, such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Most of the scientific evidence comes from animal research, and reported at best to be “inconclusive”, or weak in terms of carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity as well as acute exposure effects. More vigorous research may be needed to determine its reversibility as well as extent of “likely” toxicity to human health. One interesting type of research relevant to 1,1-dichloroethane is
Abstract: The safety of pool water is reliant on chemical sterilisation, to destroy dangerous pathogens. The most common steriliser is chlorine, in the form of hypochlorite ions (OCl-) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). However sunlight causes drastic decomposition of these chemicals, thus methods to protect chlorine from sunlight have been created for pools. Some of these include pool covers, or chemical stabilisers which combine with the free hypochlorite ions to reduce decomposition. The most common stabiliser is isocyanuric acid ((CONH)3), added until a concentration of 50mg/L is reached. An experiment was devised to test whether the pool cover or the stabiliser would be more effective at retaining chlorine concentrations, however the results
Proper water chemistry is essential to maintain the safety of the pool operation. Water chemistry usually includes five big factors: pH, free available chlorine, combined available chlorine, total alkalinity, and calcium hardness. Too much or inadequate level of any water chemistry would cause cloudiness, irritation, corrosion, or even health hazard to the swimmers. Moreover, improper balance of the pool water can damage the filter and piping systems.
The bleach that we use to clean drinking water is the same bleach that is used to clean a pool. The only difference is that the amount used to clean water is different from a pool. The amount of bleach in a pool is 3ppm ppm stands for part per million. There is 2ppm to 3ppm of bleach in our drinking water depending on the contaamination. Although not a lot of people agree with cleaning our drinking water with Chlorine which is in bleach. Although howstuffworks.com says “It is a whole lot safer to drink chlorinated water than conatminated water with disease causing
The water is also contaminated. In 2009, some tests were made and was found carbon tetrachloride 4,880 times the limit.
Meaning that drinking unsanitized and unfiltered water can expose you to harmful types of microorganisms and other harmful things to take in such as dirt and decomposed plant life, which can lead to illness. The results of our experiments also answered our question, “Does water treatment kill all living things in the water? If the treated water is containing any microorganism then should we drink it?” Well as we studied local treated water in our experiments we did not find bacteria, but in the case of if you did find harmful or non-harmful bacteria in your water. Contact your local authorities so they can take care of the problem, but in the meantime drink bottled
“Recreational water illnesses (RWIs) are caused by germs spread by swallowing, breathing in mists or aerosols of, or having contact with contaminated water in swimming pools, hot tubs, water parks, water play areas, interactive fountains, lakes, rivers, or oceans. RWIs can also be caused by chemicals in the water or chemicals that evaporate from the water and cause indoor air quality problems. RWIs may include a wide variety of infections, including gastrointestinal, skin, ear, respiratory, eye, neurologic and wound infections. Many RWIs (skin, ear, eye, respiratory, neurologic, wound, and other infections) are caused by germs that live naturally in the environment (for example, in water and soil)” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).
Oroian, Viman Oana I. "Damaging Effects of Overall Water Pollution." BioFlux (2010): 113-15. Web. 16 Apr. 2014.
The water in pools has to be disinfected to make it safe for swimming. But the disinfectants added to pools aren’t just killing harmful microbes. They’re also reacting with organic matter in the water to form unwanted disinfection by-products. Most of the precursors to those by-products are brought into the water by swimmers themselves.
Minear, R., Amy, G.. Water Disinfection and Natural Organic Matter: History and Overview. ACS Symposium Series. 1996, 649, 1-9.