Development of Europe
The notions of “modernity,” “modernization,” and “modernism” play an important role in better understanding the development of Europe. These three concepts can be applied to a range of transformations in the areas of politics, socio-economics, and culture respectively. The three concepts are connected, yet each has its own unique qualities that are useful in understanding the changes across Europe in this period. These ideas are crucial to the better comprehension of the creation of the Europe of today.
To understand the significance of the terms, it is important to first understand the terms themselves. “Modernity” was a term used around the French Revolution as a term of abuse. However, in the later part of the nineteenth century and in the twentieth century it became associated more with improvement and advancement. “Modernization” refers to the processes political, economic, and social that made a society modern. An example of this would be industrialization. Finally, “modernism” is a reference to a high cultural movement and was used to relate to changing attitudes. It is basically a celebration of the notion of progress.
“Modernity” during the French Revolution was used as a term of abuse. At this time, during the Reign of Terror in particular, France was moving toward a more republican form of government. During their attempt at the Republic of Virtue Catholicism was a focal point of attack. These attacks ended up fueling divisions that in the end proved to be fatal for the republican government. What some people saw as the future, others disliked and associated it with “modernity.” Hence, the concept of “modernity’s” use as an abusive phrase. However, at the close of the French Revolution, “modernity” took on a new use. In the nineteenth century and beyond, “modernity” became a term associated with good things.
Unlike “modernity,” “modernization” has always been a fairly neutral term. It has always described the processes that actually made the society modern. As mentioned before, a perfect example of this would be industrialization. The best place to see “modernization” is England during the Industrial Revolution. In England during the nineteenth century, industrialization began with the movement from agrar...
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...form. The NEP substituted a fixed tax on production for requisitions of grain. This policy encouraged people to produce, sell, and make money. People did get rich, but many more stayed impoverished. This belied the Bolshevik credo of a classless utopia. Furthermore, it was basically only a compromise with capitalist methods. It also lead to opposition from within the party. The Worker Opposition protested Bolshevik usurpation of economic control. They pointed out that the NEP was an agrarian program and not a proletarian one.
Zero Hour is a term that came into being at the end of World War II. It originated in Germany and was used as a way of saying that the slate was wiped clean. The Germans that survived the war did not want to be associated with the Holocaust and a war the took millions of lives. Zero hour was their way of saying they wanted to start over. Eventually, however, zero hour became a term for all of Europe. After the destruction of World War II many Europeans and the nations wanted a new start. Not only were most of the major cities flattened, but the people themselves did not want to be associated with the death and fascism of the war.
...ap between farmer’s income and industrial prices, as now farmers could not afford industrial equipment, so they therefore had fewer incentives to reproduce grain. The government’s response to this was to subsidise, so the peasant could now afford the machinery, but this then left an economic crisis has this meant they had less money to improve the economy. This indicated to Trotsky that the NEP solved some issue like famine, protests but the New Economic Policy was not capable of industrialising the economy.
The expansion of Western Europe started with the Iberian phase. Spain and Portugal, the two countries of the Iberian Peninsula, had a short-lived yet important role in European expansion. European expansion then turned to Western Europe. Western Europe consists of the Dutch, French, and British. While Western Europe was exploring new worlds overseas, the Russians were expanding westward across all of Eurasia.
Starting in the mid 1700s and continuing to the late 1850s, arguably still ongoing today, industrialization is centered on the development of machinery and urbanization. This new era found its roots in Great Britain, and later in the entirety of Western Europe once the French Revolution and the Congress of Vienna were resolved. Development was essential in Great Britain simply because it was not connected to continental Europe and Britain had the resources, like coal, to fuel the industrial revolution. Once the idea of industrialization was sparked, it burned like wildfire and spread to the rest of Europe. Results of industrialization were exceptional and robust; calling for others to join. Industrialization was a time for growth, both economically and politically, wide
With the introduction of the consumer revolution and new technologies that increased the production and variety of goods, it seemed like living standards were getting better. However, with the Revolutions of 1848, it is once again uncertain if people felt comfortable with the current political, economic, and social situations of countries in Europe. Nevertheless, people had tried to solve these problems in many different ways and methods. However, there was a clear distinction between the type of people who tried to solve the problems of Europe. There were those who thought that Europe was already in a fine position and didn’t need extreme reforms, which were moderates, and those who suggested more radical measures to be taken to achieve better, which were the
There are always major changes happening to western civilizations. These changes can become the cornerstones of revolutions and the keynotes of history. Religion, civil rights, economic struggle, intellectual enlightenment as well as other civil inquisitions have led western civilization through its twist and turns. For the whole of Europe in its transitions from medieval times to the modern world, it was influenced by a change in ideology. Philosophies and sciences brought about the new age for Europe. Political, religious and scientific standpoints reshaped the society on the continent.
Considering how to define Modernism and PostModernism required looking at how worldviews today play a large part of our perspectives towards society, culture and religion. Modernism is a sociological movement that began in the last decade of the 19th century and first decades of the 20th century that rejected the customary or traditional worldview to a new and improved way by asserting a shift in power and authority into the providence of leaders in politics and universities and away from the church.
A second effect of the Russian Revolution was the creation of a new economic policy. In 1921 Lenin adopted the New Economic Policy or NEP. It was executed to rebuild the Russian economy. The government controlled the banks, large industry, and foreign trade but businesses that were privately owned controlled themselves. Finally, peasants were able to sell their surplus crops and all in all, the economy was able to slowly recover.
European Enlightenment period often marks the start of modernity. Modernity refers to a phenomena and an age linked to a wide array of associated process such as the introduction of secular and nation-state government, the rise of capitalism, gender and race base differences, rise of classes. The basic assumption of modernity is that man with science and technology was able to understand and influence the world. However, the dark side of the desire of modern for progress and improvement is a tendency towards exclusion and categorization. The phrase genocide was not in existence before the 20th century. According to Hinton(6) similar to Genocides concepts such as human rights, race
Throughout time, nations have attempted to become independent from one another by discovering means, which would help their citizens experience more fulfilling lives. The dilemma that troubled each of these countries is whether or not innovations, in technology and society, led to a higher quality of life. Modris Eckstein and Marshall Berman examine both, the damages and benefits of modernity. Eckstein looks at individual changes that lead to the overall acceptance of modernity. He examines Germany, and how the lives of every citizen was altered following the revolutionary changes of the first half of the 20th century. Marshall Berman, on the other hand, assesses modernity as an all-encompassing characteristic of certain societies. He analyzes whether or not large-scale changes that societies made, improved the well being of their inhabitants.
The oxford Dictionary defines modernisation as 'characteristic of present and recent time; contemporary; not antiquated or obsolete'. According to this definition, Modernisation is boon for it...
Paul de Man once said, “Modernity exists in the form of a desire to wipe out whatever came earlier, in the hope of reaching at least a point that could be called a true present, a point of origin that marks a new departure.” But what is he really trying to say? Modernity takes out the old and brings in the new, continually upgrading to something else? Modernity appears as a concept of change. It most commonly refers to the social conditions, processes, and discourses resulting from the Age of Enlightenment. The concept of modernity captures the progress of societies, from primitive civilizations, which evolved gradually through discrete stages, reaching a modern age characterized by industrialization and capitalism, concluding in the current, post-modern state of globalization which shapes contemporary society with ever increasing coercion. Modernity can be placed into many different time periods. There are two, however, that are the most relevant: Early modernity and Classical modernity. Early modernity consisted of theorists such as Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith and Alexis de Tocqueville. Classical modernity consisted of theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber. Many theorists have defined their own form of “modernity” which will be discussed throughout this paper.
Most contemporary historians define the European early modern period from around the beginning of the sixteenth century, up until the commencements of the French Revolution of 1789. The ambiguity inherent in this apparent catch-all period is problematic, and invokes much debate and disagreement among historians. For the purpose of expediency, this paper will have its modernizing genesis in the thoughts of Mitchell Greenberg writing in the Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies. Greenberg states there was a common modernizing compulsion right across Europe during this time period ‘…marked by both a gen...
Modernism can be defined as the post-industrial revolutionary era, where which the western world began to see a change in all spheres of living. The effects of the industrial revolution became prevalent towards the end of the nineteenth century and the modernist movement drew inspiration from this widespread change. Artists, writers, architects, designers and musicians, all began to embrace the changing world and denounce their pre-taught doctrines and previous ways of producing work. Society felt the urge to progressively move forward toward a modern way of thinking and living.
Therborn, Göran: European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945 - 2000, London (Sage) 1995.
Modernity started with industrial revolution and Enlightenment in the 18th century in Europe, it encouraged the move from rural to urban and from agrarian to industrial. Before modernisation 'the group' was more important - but then the individual become more important as society advanced. Industrialisation is also linked with progress, if you don't move forward then you move backwards which is regressing to the 'primitive'. Ethnocentrism becomes more important, your ethnicity is at the centre and everyone else's ethnicity must follow yours. But quite often development can breed discontent, and people were unhappy with modernisation, as a result colonisation started. Colonisation was a political and economic phenomena where by various nations send settlers to explore, conquer and settle. This had a big influence on art. African art is classified according to pre and post colonialism, but African art also spread to Europe where it influenced movements such as Impressionism. (William, 1985:212)