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Criminology Theories

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In more recent years, criminological theories have appeared in several variations from biological, psychological, and sociological perspectives. For the most part, criminologists have devised explanations to describe the nature of crimes, what causes an individual to adopt criminal behavior, and the reasons why some people in poor neighborhoods do not subscribe to criminal behaviors. Also, there are other factors which come into play to explain why criminal behavior occurs at an all-time high. Some of the factors that relate to crime are social groups, lack of educational opportunities, and of financial resources. The combination of the factors listed motivate criminal behavior among young people and adults. However, criminologists have created various explanations to gain a deeper comprehension of why criminal activities occur. There is an extensive amount of theories available to scholars to describe criminal behavior in an effort to identify the earliest phase of criminology in an individual. The …show more content…

In this essay, the author

  • Explains that criminologists have devised explanations to describe the nature of crimes, what causes an individual to adopt criminal behavior, and the reasons why some people in poor neighborhoods do not subscribe to criminal behaviors.
  • Explains that without research, crime theories would have no proof of validity. they must be testable with objective evidence.
  • Explains that research is important in describing the effects of reckless behavior within criminals, and the importance of physical evidence in correlation to criminal cases.
  • Explains that the 1960s ushered in a wave of federally funded programs in an attempt to reduce overall levels of crime.
  • Explains that federally funded programs stimulate responsibility and motivation within students which overall reduces the incidents of crime.

One of the biggest claims surrounding the program is that through preventive efforts delinquent behavior reduces in adolescents for the near future. Upward Bound has statistical finding show an increase in the enrollment rate for students who participated in the crime. There was a positive impact upon students who applied for the program, did not expect to earn bachelor’s degrees. Not to mention, each additional year a student participates in an Upward Bound program; nine percentage point increase occurs in attendance at postsecondary institutions. Doubling the percentage of attendance to four year institutions from 18 percent to 38, illustrating the student’s commitment to the program. Hence, student how a strong correlation to reaching the standards of Upward Bound and to implement the motivating factors within their daily

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  • Theories of Crime
    analytical essay
    Many theories of crime are macro theories, which are used to explain crime based on a large group of people or society. While macro theories are the predominant type of theory used to explain crime, there are also a variety of “individual”, or micro, factors which are equally important. Two such individual factors s are maternal cigarette smoking (MCS) and cognitive ability, or Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

    In this essay, the author

    • Explains that many theories of crime are macro theories, which are used to explain crime based on a large group of people or society. there are also individual factors, such as maternal cigarette smoking and cognitive ability.
    • Explains that mcs negatively impacts the neurological development of a fetus, with serious damage to the nervous system.
    • Explains that cognitive abilities, or our iq, are basic skills which enable us to learn, solve problems, and carry out simple tasks.
    • Explains that people with higher iqs perform well academically and are able to achieve. low self-control is only one means of predicting crime.
    • Explains terrie e. moffitt's theory argues that antisocial behavior can be life-course persistent offenders and adolescence-limited offender who grow out of the behavior as they age.
    • Explains that gottfredson and hirschi's general theory of crime, also known as low self-control theory, does not make distinctions between types of crimes or even demographics of those who commit crimes.
    • Explains that low self-control is an indicator of high risk criminal behaviors, such as drugs and alcohol, risky sex, and motor vehicle infractions (speeding).
    • Explains that moffitt's theory argues that antisocial behavior can be: 1) life-course persistent offenders who spend the majority of their life exhibiting it, and 2) adolescence-limited offender who grow out of it as they age.
    • Compares sampson and laub's theory of persistent offending and desistance from crime with moffitt’s (pathways in the life course to crime).
    • Opines that both theoretical explanations of crime have valid points, but they would have to side more closely with sampson and laub. they believe that if given the right positive influences, even a persistent offender can change for the good.
    • Explains that many theories of predicting crime are macro theories, which are used to explain crime based on a large group of people or society.
    • Analyzes pratt and cullen's article, assessing macro-level predictors and theories of crime: a meta-analysis, that there are "strong" predictors which can best be described as social disorganization theories.
    • Explains that strain/anomie theorists believe that we are more likely to commit crime when driven by social, community, and subcultural influences rather than individualistic tendencies. merton believed that our culture leads us to want (materialistic) things.
    • Analyzes how messner and rosenfeld explain why crime rates in the united states are high. they extend merton's model of strain/anomie by arguing that the emphasis we place on monetary gains is because the economy dominates every aspect of our lives
    • Analyzes how shaw and mckay's social disorganization theory, along with merton’s anomie theory emerged as predominant macro theories. they used their theories to demonstrate how macro processes could explain why inner city neighborhoods experience so much crime.
    • Opines that it is important to examine crime causation on a micro and macro level. family and society relationships form bonds which exert influence over our actions, whether we realize it or not.
    • Cites cullen, t., wright, j. p. (2006), empirical status of deterrence theory: a meta-analysis.
    • Cites pratt, m. a., cullen, and godsey, t. w.
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  • Theories of Crime
    analytical essay
    Juvenile delinquency is a social issue that has been without much success with regards to its redress. This has mostly been contributed to failures to fully understand the concept. The best way to address such an issue can only be through the understanding of the causation mechanism that has led to the situation. There is a dire need to get an understanding of the causes of juvenile delinquency within the society being the only way to adequately comes up with preventive measures against delinquency. This is based on the sheer knowledge and fact that treatment of these deemed offenders can only be upon a clear understanding as well as appreciation of its causation mechanisms that gave rise to its preference.

    In this essay, the author

    • Opines that the best way to address juvenile delinquency is through the understanding of the causation mechanism that has led to the situation.
    • Explains albert bandura's proposed social learning theory, which was based on observational learning and focused on behavior modeling.
    • Explains that three theories have been proposed that reflect the biological, sociological, and psychological to try and understand this concept.
    • Explains that william h. sheldon proposed a classification that proposed that the human physique was directly linked to crime, which he referred to as somatotyping.
    • Explains hans eysenck's support for neurophysiological characteristics that show a relationship with criminals. extroverts need stimulation, change, and excitement to be impulsive as well as thrill-seeking individuals.
    • Analyzes how factors like sex, race, age, socioeconomic status, values, friends, poor education, environmental and situational factors contribute to sociological theories. merton came up with a social strain theory with regards to criminal involvement.
    • Analyzes merton's opinion that the lower social classes were more vulnerable to the depredations of anomie since they had higher affinity to having their aspirations frustrated as they attempted to contribute in the economic benefits of the general society.
    • Explains that there are many factors that do and might contribute to a child’s delinquency, which are diverse by all factors; in most cases, they are complexly interwoven within any single case.
    • Cites bartol, c. r., & a.m. (2006). criminal behavior: a psychosocial approach. pearsoneducation, inc. upper saddle river, new jersey.
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  • Crimes: Criminological Theory And Analysis
    opinionated essay
    In my opinion, I feel people commit crimes for numerous reasons, and many factors contribute to whether a crime occurs, and what types of crimes are committed. Furthermore, present in all criminology theory are two ontological assumptions, and the first assumption addresses whether human behavior is free willed or determined (Bohm & Vogel, 2011). Subsequently, the next assumption considers the inherent condition of human beings, or the condition of human beings in a hypothetical state of nature (Bohm & Vogel, 2011). Consequently, I feel different factors apply to different crimes, which include biological, psychological, or sociological factors (Bohm & Vogel, 2011). For instance, let us examine crimes of opportunity in Davidson County,

    In this essay, the author

    • Opines that people commit crimes for numerous reasons, and many factors contribute to whether a crime occurs and what types of crimes are committed.
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  • Criminology Theories
    analytical essay
    Crime has become a major issue of public concern and of political discussion. We do not fully understand what factors are causing these crime trends, nor do we know what direction in which crime rates are moving. “Understanding what factors are influencing these crime trends are important for enhancing the rationality of public policies and public expenditures related to crime, particularly because many such commitments have to be made well in advance of their actual use” (Blumstein, 2008). These include, for example, recruiting and training police forces, building prisons, and developing other interventions outside the criminal justice system. It’s easy to see what the contributing factors are when the crime stats are elevated, those contributing factors are loss in job opportunities for young people with minimal education, a loss in social services as a result of federal funding cuts, reductions in the size of police forces, diversion of police attention to terrorism issues, slower growth in the prison population, and diminished attention to gun control (Blumstein, 2008). If we take a look at the crime statistics for the state of Arizona over the last five years from 2007 to 2012 you’ll notice that the population has slightly increased by 200,000 more people but the violent crimes have decreased. The statistics on murder show that in 2007 there were 548 murders and in 2012 there were only 358, this is a 35 percent decrease over the last 5 years. Since the population has increased slightly you would think that the violent crimes like murder would go up or at least stay the same.

    In this essay, the author

    • Explains that crime has become a major issue of public concern and political discussion. understanding the factors influencing crime trends is important for enhancing the rationality of government policies and public expenditures related to crime.
    • Explains that arizona's border is used by the sinaloa cartel to transport drugs and money to the united states, which is why the small towns like nogales are ridden with crimes especially violent crimes.
    • Explains social disorganization theory as an inability of community members to achieve shared values or to solve jointly experienced problems.
    • Analyzes how modern social disorganization theory links structural aspects of neighborhoods to a neighborhoods ability to institute social control and impacted other neighborhood aspects.
    • Explains how the broken windows theory helps reduce crime in impoverished neighborhoods. by fixing street lamps, abandoned houses, and arresting people for misdemeanor crimes, the community and law enforcement know what needs to be done to keep crime from happening.
    • Explains that the state of arizona has a school safety program that places school resource officers and/or juvenile probation officers in selected schools to contribute to safe school environments that are conducive to teaching and learning.
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  • Criminological Theory
    analytical essay
    "Our primary aim is to discover how some social structures exert a definite pressure upon certain persons in the society to engage in nonconforming rather that conforming conduct. If we can locate groups peculiarly subject to such pressures, we should expect to find fairly high levels of deviant behaviour in these groups, not because the human beings comprising them are compounded of distinctive biological tendencies, but because they are responding to the social situation in which they find themselves"(Merton, 1957 p. 186).

    In this essay, the author

    • Opines that if we can locate groups peculiarly subject to such pressures, we should expect to find fairly high levels of deviant behavior in these groups.
    • Explains that robert merton is one of the world's most cited theorists in the study of deviance.
    • Explains merton's research on deviance was a consequence of the cultural ideals imposed upon society. like the chicago school of thought, he located the roots of his research in the fabric of american society
    • Analyzes robert merton's theory of 'anomie' and reworked the term to refer to a situation where there is an apparent lack of fit between the cultures norms about what constitutes success in life.
    • Explains that merton noticed that in the 1930s there weren't jobs available, and in a time of great depression, many people died on the street of hunger and malnutrition.
    • Analyzes merton's suggestion that conformity to conventional cultural values in itself can lead to high crime rates.
    • Explains that merton believed that the pursuit of the american dream led to crime when their dreams were fulfilled.
    • Explains that merton alleged there were two central elements in the culture structure in society, namely culturally defined goals and institutionalised means to achieve these goals.
    • Explains that the emphasis on monetary success is one dominant theme in american culture, and traced the stains which is differentially imposes upon those variously located in the social structure.
    • Opines that in an idealistic society, there would be a balance between culturally defined goals and institutionalised means to achieve the goals that are open to us all in.
    • Explains merton's theory that success is dominant across society, but legitimate means are not equally accessible.
    • Explains that high frequency of deviant behaviour is not generated by lack of opportunity or exaggerated pecuniary emphasis. a comparatively rigidified class structure, a caste order, may limit opportunities
    • Explains that the imbalance between goals and means creates a state of normlessness (anomie), where individuals pursuer goals without social regulation. anomie was the starting point of analysis for merton.
    • Explains that anomie triumphs when there is eminent unemployment and disadvantage. conformists are those who subscribe to the goals and accept intuitional means, while retreatist's reject them and attempt to replace them with alternatives.
    • Explains that innovators accept the goals of society, but not the institutional means, and bend the rules by theft, burglary, fraud and so forth, in order to pursue their goals.
    • Explains that merton assumes that society puts pressure on social minorities, and the poor, to engage in nonconforming activity such as crime.
    • Explains merton's theory that crime is caused by social disadvantage, but the relation between crime and unemployment is more complex.
    • Explains that the 1926 new zealand census revealed 11,000 unemployed men and 49,000 crimes that went before the courts, totalling 35 crimes per 1000 of population.
    • Explains that unemployment reached 10% in the 1980s, and crime rates stabilized in 1990s as unemployment declined to its present level of around 3%.
    • Explains that in the 1920s, communities that were hit by mass unemployment came together, thus unemployment was not experienced by the individual but together at a community level without the stigma generally associated with unemployment.
    • Analyzes the negative associations of unemployment and dissection amongst society. those deprived of means to accomplish goals are constantly reminded how enviable it is to lead the lifestyle of the wealthy.
    • Explains that racial discrimination of ethnic minorities can also cause blocked opportunities. crime rates rose from 55 per 1000 population in 1970, to 132 in 1992; an all-time high.
    • Explains the factors that may have influenced the increase in the offence rate between 1970 and 1992.
    • Argues that merton's theory is relative when the concept of socio-economic factors and the increase in opportunities for crime in a consumer society are considered.
    • Explains that 3 in 8 maori, were on some form of government benefit during the last twelve months, and that the number of maori adults convicted of a crime in 2001 was 34,336.
    • Opines that a causal theory as to why some groups might adapt via rebellion and others by innovation is not provided to explain why not everyone who experiences hardship is deviant (relative disadvantage).
    • Explains that the american dream' is still widely sought after, with great emphasis placed on education, wealth, success and material possessions. merton's theory can be applied to white collar crime.
    • Analyzes how merton's theory of white collar crime doesn't fully explain it. white collar criminals are not often from minority or lower-class stratas of society.
    • Explains that merton's theory can be applied to burglary, theft and fraud, but it lacks the ability to explain crimes of passion, domestic murder, child abuse and other forms of violent crime which dominate societies today.
    • Argues that robert merton's theory is relevant to the crime problems of today, but violent crimes and so forth are excluded and cannot be explained.
    • Argues that merton was the first theorist to recognise that crime was a product of inequality, durkhiem had defined crime as normal social event, and the chicago school had stated that the condition was learned an unabated.
    • Analyzes merton's deemed economic adversity should see crime rise, yet it increased when there was no unemployment in new zealand in the 50s and 60s.
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  • The Act of Violent Crime
    analytical essay
    Nevertheless, the criminologist includes the “Biological and Development theory of youthful crime which states that early age has high involvement in crime in contrast to older aged people” (Pratt & Cullen, 2005: 9). Also, “The Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Individual level theory represents that poverty and social elements are responsible for escalating the crime” (Pratt & Cullen, 2005: 9). It gathers the data from UCR for 2011and California’s Criminal Justice Statistics Center for 2012 regarding the violent arrest by age, race, county and poverty.

    In this essay, the author

    • Analyzes the violent crime, its movements, causes and method to moderate or reduce it through the different criminologist theories or views.
    • Analyzes how the article assesses the teenager's involvement in violent crime and their high arrest rate due to the economic deprivation and lack of future success in youth.
    • Explains that the criminologist includes the "biological and development theory of youthful crime" which states that early age has high involvement in crime in contrast to older people.
    • Opines that the article has limitations that it talked about poverty more than identify individual behavior. the article offers valuable sources for this essay as it includes overview of different theories to explain the content of violent crime rate.
    • Explains that the article seeks to define the family violence and law policies response to child–parent violence. it studied the information from the national incident based reporting system data from 2000 to 2004.
    • Analyzes how the uniform crime reports and media reports indicate that the girls convicted rate is more than boys, and criminal justice policy has increased in the arrest of girls in simple assault.
    • Analyzes how the article has limitations like the national coverage of nibrs of child-parent assault to the constabulary. it contends that policy makers should select laws and determine if an arrest is right.
    • Analyzes how the article shows the neighborhood disadvantage and alcohol usage are the main concern of the high school in toronto, canada.
    • Analyzes how the article determines the theory of "social disorganization" by shaw and mckay, and hirschi's'social control theory'.
    • Analyzes how the article provides information on current and future research work. it provides different measures and data to furnish the rate of violent crime in high school.
    • Analyzes the re-offending behavior after release from custodial in both men and women. the article identifies gender differences in violent recidivist crime.
    • Explains that the article includes different dependent analysis to present the movement and to control of violent recidivism like illegal history, drug and alcohol use, redundancy, marital condition, schooling, age, socioeconomic status, and rebellious nature.
    • Concludes that the article provides useful sources to represent the intellect for the cause of the offense and provides info about criminal justice system policies to slim down the criminal offense.
    • Analyzes how the article evaluates the intimate violence offence on aboriginal men in canada compared to non-aboriginal men.
    • Explains that the article admits the past research of violence on aboriginal men by intimate partner.
    • Explains that the article has limitations for future research and the result collected is due to the variation or fluctuations in the data of intimate partner victimization.
    • Cites brownridge, d. a., collins, r. e. and erickson. neighborhood disadvantage, alcohol usage, and violent victimization.
    • Explains that strom, warner, tichavsky, and zahn, m. a. (2014). policing juveniles: domestic violence arrest policies, gender, & police response to child-parent violence.
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  • Chasing Ghosts: The Search for a General Theory of Crime
    analytical essay
    However, even if said theory is possible, the field of criminology is too young and the body of research to narrow at the present moment to suggest that individuals who commit crimes of passion due so for the same reason individuals commit white collar crime, rape, property crime, the distribution of contraband, or any other overt act that the state chooses to deem illegal. Indeed, as this paper has attempted to demonstrate, some of the most influential minds in the history of criminology have yet to create a true general theory that can consistently hold up to the rigours of empirical research by current criminologists who subject criminological theories to tremendous scrutiny. As a result, the search for a general theory of crime remains elusive at best and at worst, akin to chasing ghosts.

    In this essay, the author

    • Explains that general theories of crime explain all types of criminal behaviour regardless of the contextual framework and individual differences in which the criminal act is embedded.
    • Argues that the creation of a general theory of crime should be aggressively pursued by those in criminology, but such theorizing is fraught with peril.
    • Explains travis hirschi's attempt at creating a general theory of crime, which is one of the most controversial and divisive thinkers in criminology.
    • Explains that attachment is the degree of emotional proximity youth have with significant others with parents in particular, playing an important role. commitment is essentially a youth’s personal stake in conforming, and involvement in extracurricular and conventional activities restrict opportunities to participate in crime.
    • Analyzes hirschi's revision of self-control, which is based on maladaptive child-rearing and inconsistent supervision and punishment from parents.
    • Analyzes how hirschi's bold assertions of formulating a general theory of crime have generated considerable criticism.
    • Explains that hirschi amalgamated his two theories stating that self-control was most influenced by the degree to which social bonding was prevalent at the moment one decides to perpetrate a criminal act.
    • Opines that hirschi's revised explanation and other general crime theories have demonstrated empirical validity, but the generalizability of these studies is still not apparent as research tends to place an emphasis on a particular type of crime.
    • Explains robert agnew's general strain theory, based on robert merton’s anomie, which delineated one type of criminogenic strain: the pursuit of economic success.
    • Explains that agnew identified three types of strain: the failure to accomplish pertinent goals that one cherishes with fondness, the removal of stimuli which one holds in high regard, and the presentation of stimulus that has a negative connotation on one’s life.
    • Argues that agnew's general strain theory is subjected to criticism despite empirical support. hirschi’s concept of self-control plays an important factor when determining the type of response levied against strain.
    • Argues that self-complexity is incorporated as a variable in the determination of how people respond to strain.
    • Argues that the integration of differential association theory with labeling theory could create a more unified general theory of crime than one derived from scratch.
    • Analyzes how hirschi's general theory of crime was used to bridge the theoretical gap between merton’s strain theory and barbara perry’
    • Argues that it is foolish to create a general theory of crime in which all potential explanations are combined into one theory.
    • Opines that the creation of a true general theory of crime would simplify an overly complicated and heavily congested academic field.
    • Argues that the field of criminology is too young and the body of research to narrow at the present moment to suggest that individuals who commit crimes of passion due to the same reason individuals commit white collar crime, rape, property crime or the distribution of contraband.
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  • Criminological Paradigms
    explanatory essay
    Answer Criminological paradigms or theories explain why people commit crimes and why individual behave in a certain situation. It also explanation of crime, the relationship between individual characteristic, social order, how individual develop crime, level, distribution of a crime and causes of crime. Most criminological paradigms or theories serve as an element to prevent crime in the society. These theories are designed to let people understand criminal behaviors, but they are yet to clarify why punishment or incarcerate of offenders is unable to prevent deviancy. Criminology has different types of paradigms and theory, they are, rational choice, classical, conflict, critical, labeling, routine activity, social control, positive, life course, biosocial, strain and differential association theory.

    In this essay, the author

    • Explains that most criminological paradigms or theories serve as an element to prevent crime in the society.
    • Explains that criminology has different types of paradigms and theories, such as rational choice, classical, conflict, critical, labeling, routine activity, social control, positive, life course, biosocial, strain, and differential association theory.
    • Explains that rational choice and classical theory are similar because of choice theory belief that people choose to commit a crime, they look at the chance before evaluating the gain versus the punishment. both theories derived its origin from john locke and are rooted in utilitarianism.
    • Explains that the choice theory is deciding or focus on both sides because of the punishment involved people are deterred from committing a crime while classical theory belief that people commit crime from his own free will.
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  • Mainstream Criminological Theories
    analytical essay
    Clark and Cornish (2004), postulate that most criminological theories tend to be deterministic and ignore the process that offenders use in deciding whether or not to commit a crime. They argue that this approach is flawed because an offender’s perception and “conscious thought process” gives his actions purpose, justification, and helps him select, attend to, or process information. Additionally, Clark and Cornish (2004) state that in 1960s, sociological approaches of the ‘Chicago School’ began to “stress the importance of developing an understanding the offender’s perspective.” Similarly, mainstream criminology began to subscribe to this concept due to “the apparent failure in the rehabilitative ideal,” which shifted attention and assets

    In this essay, the author

    • Argues that most criminological theories tend to be deterministic and ignore the process that offenders use in deciding whether or not to commit a crime.
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  • Criminal Justice Theories And Research
    explanatory essay
    Theories and research aspects are important aspects of life. Starting with research, research is an important aspect as it incorporates methodologies that one can use to study a topic and come up with profound findings on the study topic. Theories, on the other hand, explains some phenomena or mystical happenings in the environments. In the field of criminal justices, theories and research techniques are vital they help one to come up with findings on causes of crime and drive patterns from several behavioral sequences that help in crime management (Daly, 2011). The paper relates theory and research and shows their application from a criminal justice perspective.

    In this essay, the author

    • Explains that theories and research are important aspects of life. they explain phenomena or mystical happenings in the environment.
    • Explains that federal units rely on psychological theories from research to control crime. they explain that criminals use similar behavioral patterns to commit offenses.
    • Explains that research and theory are related in several ways. theorists use research to prove their explanations about phenomena and mystical happenings in life, while researchers use theories to attempt to explain mysterious aspects and complex parts of their research findings.
    • Cites bachman, schutt, and daly. chapter 17: aims of the criminal justice system. griffith university.
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