Condensed Matter Physics, in its early conception, was not known by its more modern terminology but emanated from Solid State Physics. Comparable to Astronomy, Solid State Physics is the oldest subcategory of what we now refer to as Physics. Condensed-matter physics is broader and applies to concepts that work in solids, but could equally be applied to liquids: superconductivity vs. superfluidity, and soft-condensed matter. Condensed Matter Physics has contributed properties of materials including electronic, magnetic, dynamical, mechanical, and thermo-dynamical properties of nanoscale systems and materials such as but not limited to: Metals and alloys, semiconductors, superconductors, polymers, ceramics, crystal, amorphous and cluster-like states. Condensed Matter Physics is interdisciplinary and intertwined with inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, quantum chemistry, electrical and mechanical. It tries to connect the properties of the nuclei and electrons to the macroscopically observed quantities. As in other fields of study, advancement in condensed matter resulted from impro...
In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell revolutionized physics by publishing A Treatise On Electricity And Magnetism (James C. Maxwell, Bio.com), in which his equations described, for the first time, the unified force of electromagnetism (Stewart, Maxwell’s Equations), and how the force would influence objects in the area around it (Dine, Quantum Field Theory). Along with other laws such as Newton’s Law Of Gravitation, it formed the area of physics called classical field theory (Classical Field Theory, Wikipedia). However, over the next century, quantum mechanics were developed, leading to the realization that classical field theory, though thoroughly accurate on a macroscopic scale, simply would not work at a quantum, or subatomic scale, due to the extremely different behaviour of elementary particles. Scientists began developing a new ideas that would describe the behaviour of subatomic particles when subjected to the fundamental forces (QFT, Columbia Electronic Dictionary)(QFT, Britannica School). Einstein’s theory of special relativity, which states that the speed of light is always constant and as a result, both space and time are, in contrary, relative, was combined into this new theory, allowing for accurate descriptions of elementary
* Halliday, David, Robert Resnick and Jearl Walker. Fundamentals of Physics, 5th ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1997.
The molar specific heats of most solids at room temperature and above are nearly constant, in agreement with the Law of Dulong and Petit. At lower temperatures the specific heats drop as quantum processes become significant. The Einstein-Debye model of specific heat describes the low temperature behavior.
The Ultimate Nature of Matter. The theory of quantum mechanics has divided the atom into a number of fundamental sub-atomic particles. Although the physicist has shown that the atom is not a solid indivisible object, he has not been able to find a particle which does possess those qualities. Talk of particles, though, is misleading because the word suggests a material object.
Quantum thermodynamic scientists are aiming to explore the behavior outside the lines of conventional thermodynamics. This exploration could be used for functional cases, which include “improving lab-based refrigeration techniques, creating batteries with enhanced capabilities and refining technology of quantum computing.” (Merali P.1). However, this field is still in an early state of exploration. Experiments, including the one that is being performed at Oxford University, are just beginning to test these predictions. “A flurry of attempts has been made to calculate how thermodynamics and the quantum theory might combine” (Merali P. 1). However, quantum physicist Peter Hänggi stated that “there is far too much theory and not enough experiment” (Merali P.1) in this field of study, which is why its credibility is undermined. Nevertheless, people are starting to put more effort into understanding quantum thermodynamics in order to make
The understanding that matter was composed of atoms was changed with the discovery of smaller particles than the atoms, which are protons, neutrons, and electrons. But during the 1960’s, the multitude of particles being discovered was making the understanding that matter is composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons, insufficient. Murray Ge...
Loss can leave us with the feeling that we are no longer in control of our lives, a strong feeling of instability. We must understand our loss to cope and deal with what has happened. Jo Ann Beard the narrator and author of “The Fourth State of Matter” struggles with several losses throughout the text. She appears to deal with her instability by caring for her aged dog as if she was a sick child, when in reality Beard just wants her problems to disappear. When faced with a complication a difficult choice must be made, to do nothing in hopes the problem will resolve itself or face it head-on. When pretending the problem doesn't exist or similarly telling yourself it will go back to how it was, simply allows
of experiment and theory. It is the hard particles that move in such a way that
Superconductivity was first discovered a century ago in 1908 by Dutch physicist Heike Onnes[1] and is defined in classical physics as “perfect conductivity” or exactly zero electrical resistance (figure 1). With the discovery of the Meissner Effect in 1933, a new theory of superconductivity was formulated by Fritz and Hein London in 1935 stating superconductivity ...
1 David Halliday, Robert Resnick, and Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Extended, 5th ed. (NewYork:Wiley, 1997) 361
The development of superconductors has been a working progress for many years and some superconductors are already in use, but there is always room for improvement. In 1911, Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes first discovered superconductivity when he cooled mercury to 4 degrees K (-452.47º F / -269.15º C). At this temperature, mercury’s resistance to electricity seemed to disappear. Hence, it was necessary for Onnes to come within 4 degrees of the coldest temperature that is theoretically attainable to witness the phenomenon of superconductivity. Later, in 1933 Walter Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered that a superconducting material will repel a magnetic field. A magnet moving by a conductor induces currents in the conductor, which is the principle upon which the electric generator operates. However, in a superconductor the induced currents exactly mirror the field that would have otherwise penetrated the superconducting material - causing the magnet to be repulsed- known today as the “Meissner effect.” The Meissner effect is so strong that a magnet can actually be levitated over a superconductive material, which increases the use of superconductors. After many other superconducting elements, compounds, and theories related to superconductivity were developed or discovered a great breakthrough was made. In 1986, Alex Muller and Georg Bednorz invented a ceramic substance which superconducted at the highest temperature then known: 30 K (-243.15º C). This discovery was remarkable because ceramics are normally insulators – they do not conduct electricity well. Since their discovery the highest temperature for superconductivity to occur is 138 K (-130.15º C).
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and can be perceived by one or more senses; a physical body, a physical substance, or the universe as a whole. There are four distinct states of matter: solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. There are other states of matter such as Bose-Einstein condesates and neutron degenerate matter, but those states can only be found under extreme conditions.
The development of quantum mechanics in the 1920's and 1930's has revolutionized our understanding of the chemical bond. It has allowed chemists to advance from the simple picture that covalent and ionic bonding affords to a more complex model based on molecular orbital theory.
Serway, Raymond A, and Robert J Beichner. Physics: For Scientists and Engineers. United States of
Solids, Liquids and Gasses are all states of matter, along with them comes Plasma the fourth and most interesting state of matter; However, is often than not left out of many classroom instructions when speaking of the states of matter; Even Though it is the most common state of matter since it is seen in everyday life, Making up over 99% of the visual universe. Plasma also has an interesting connection to the solar system, lights, electricity. Because of Plasma research a greater understanding to the Universe is being adapted