China

“Government in China: three perspectives”

In the Ming period of government in China, it is evident that the characteristics and learning of the emperor are essential to the essence of good government. Under the Confucian system, it was vital to conform to the strict hierarchical structure of the social and political codes which formed the foundation of the system: therefore, the basis of good government was something which permeated all levels of society but was ultimately inspired by, and dictated by, the higher levels of the power structure and ultimately the emperor.

Within the hierarchy, there were certain aspects of rights and responsibilities which could not be transcended and which ensured that each member of society retained their appropriate place within the overall structure. There would invariably be those above, to whom one owed deference and respect, and those below, to whom one owed protection. No-one was isolated, but rather seen as an integral part of a network which could only function successfully if everyone played exactly the role which was allotted to them, and did not attempt to transcend their designated status.

The concept of government, therefore, was something which was dictated from the top of the power structure but permeated to all its levels. Government of the country, of a province, of a household, were all aspects of the same strictly enforced social order and each level could be seen as reflecting the pattern of the one above.

However, according to Confucian practices it was not sufficient to understand good practice and to put it into effect, it was also essential to demonstrate to others that the individual was aware of their particular place in the social and political hierarchy. There was therefore a heavy reliance on custom and ritual, which affected every aspect of everyday life and acted as a constant reiteration of the dictates of the hierarchy. To carry out these rituals not only reinforced one’s social standing, both to oneself and to others, but also showed that the lower orders of the social structure maintained their faith in, and obedience to, the higher orders.

In this way not only could the government be maintained, its efficiency could be seen to be exemplified at all levels of the social and cultural hierarchy. This strictly codified and rigidly enforced system, however, was at least to some extent de...

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...hose who are at the top of the hierarchy and disseminate their virtues to those below.

If this system breaks down, becomes corrupt or deteriorates into a façade, then only the outward trappings of order remain, in the practices of ritual: there is no inner core of wisdom and sagacity of which these practices should be the outward representation. Government may continue to function, but it is no longer motivated by the virtues and philosophies which originally motivated it, and the continuation of custom and ritual loses its meaning and significance. We see this in ‘Woman Wang’, for example, in the way that marriage is perceived: the Confucian ideal in which the man is superior, but has a responsibility to respect and protect the woman, has gone and in its place is an abusive relationship where the power remains, but the impetus to protect is gone. Wang is still confined by custom to her marriage, but it is no longer the enlightened hierarchy of Confucianism but the darker control relationship of a patriarchy.

References

Huang, R. (1986) 1587: a year of no significance. Yale University Press.

Kuhn, P. (1990) Soulstealers. Harvard.

Spence, J. (1978) Death of Woman Wang. Penguin.