Career Development and Gender, Race, and Class
analytical Essay
2250 words
Career Development and Gender, Race, and Class
Many theories of career development are derived from theories of personality (Sharf 1997). They attempt to illuminate the interrelationship of individual personality and behavior with work and careers. However, some prevailing career development theories were based solely on research on white males from middle- and upper-middle-class backgrounds, so their applicability to women, people of color, and other socioeconomic groups has been called into question. In addition, the focus on individual psychological or personality characteristics does not take into account the wider environmental context in which people make career decisions, thus failing to recognize the constraints faced by some groups. This Digest investigates broader perspectives on career development that are being built on emerging research focused on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. The implications of this information for career and vocational educators and counselors are discussed.
Issues Related to Career Development Theories
Some types of career development theories include trait and factor, life-span, and social cognitive (Sharf 1997). This section looks at some of the issues surrounding the applicability of these theories in regard to gender, race, and class.
Trait and Factor Theories. The basis of trait and factor theories is the assumption that there are unique traits that can be reliably measured and that it is possible to match individual traits to occupational requirements. Holland identified six types of occupations theorized that people seek work environments and occupations that match their preferred traits. However, some people question the accuracy of the instruments used to measure...
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...h: What Kind and by Whom? ERIC Digest. Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services, 1995. (ED 399 486)
Perron, J. et al. "A Longitudinal Study of Vocational Maturity and Ethnic Identity Development." Journal of Vocational Behavior 52, no. 3 (June 1998): 409-424.
Rojewski, J. W. "Predicting Career Maturity Attitudes in Rural Economically Disadvantaged Youth." Journal of Career Development 21, no. 1 (Fall 1994): 49-61. (EJ 487 464)
Sharf, R.S. Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling. 2d ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1997.
"Special Issue: Racial Identity and Vocational Behavior." Journal of Vocational Behavior 44, no. 2 (April 1994). (EJ 482 681-688)
Stitt-Gohdes, W. L. Career Development: Issues of Gender, Race, and Class. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1997. (ED 413 533)
In this essay, the author
- Explains that many theories of career development are derived from personality theories. however, their applicability to women, people of color, and other socioeconomic groups has been called into question.
- Explains that trait and factor theories are based on the assumption that there are unique traits that can be reliably measured and that it is possible to match individual traits to occupational requirements.
- Explains that life-span theories take a long-term, developmental perspective. super's theory of vocational choice suggests that individuals pass through stages of vocational development involving developmental tasks at each stage.
- Explains social cognitive career theory, which identifies the interaction of personal attributes, external environmental factors, and behavior in career decision making.
- Argues that career development theories are based on white, middle-class values, make assumptions, fail to include crucial structural and cultural variables, and are not applicable to certain groups.
- Explains that career maturity is influenced by age, ace, ethnicity, locus of control, socioeconomic status, work salience, and gender.
- Explains that some studies fail to show that socioeconomic status has a significant influence on career maturity, but others suggest that concepts like career exploration and planning may not apply to poor individuals who may leave school to take jobs for economic survival
- Explains that career maturity research shows conflicting results for gender, some studies finding higher levels in males, others in females.
- Explains that racial/ethnic identity is emerging as an important dimension in explaining career development. cross presented the nigrescence model, a continuum of african american identity.
- Explains leong and chou's findings that a continuum of ethnic identity influences the vocational behavior and career choices of asian americans, while native americans' world view affects their view of work.
- Analyzes how different cultures have different conceptions of the family, gender roles, and family-work relationships. "career" may have a collective, not an individual meaning.
- Opines that race/ethnicity shouldn't be used as a primary signifier of career behavior, and it's important to look at the conditions under which membership is salient.
- Explains that career choice and development are influenced by multiple factors, including personality, self-concept, racial/cultural identity, socialization, financial resources, experiences of sexism, racism, and class.
- Cites carter, r.t., and cook, d.a. in adult career development, 2d ed.
- States fitzgerald, l. f., and betz, n.e. in convergence in career development theories.
- Cites leong, f. t. l., osborne, and miner, c.u.
- Explains naidoo, bowman, s.l., and gerstein, l.h. demographics, causality, work salience and the career maturity of african-american students.
- Explains perron's longitudinal study of vocational maturity and ethnic identity development in rural economically disadvantaged youth.
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- Adult Career Counseling in a New Ageargumentative essayIn this era of organizational restructuring and technological change, individuals can no longer plan on spending their entire working lives with one organization. Life no longer follows a linear path: schooling, work, retirement. Career paths, too, are no longer a linear rise up the ladder to the top. Some analysts proclaim the "new rules of work" : everyone is self-employed and the concept of "job " is disappearing (Hall and Mirvis 1995). Such fundamental changes mean that people need more help than ever with career issues. However, a recent survey of 1,046 adults (Hoyt and Lester 1995) showed that 40% would turn to family or friends first; 37% to counselors. Only 30% had discussed career choices with school or college counselors; only 36% had made a conscious career choice or plan; and, for 4...
In this essay, the author
- Explains that the changing workplace has made ambiguity the only certainty in work life. many adults had little or no career education, guidance, or counseling when they were "in school," and often seek such help now.
- Explains that the job club is an effective network of information exchange and social support for others adrift in the same boat of midlife transition.
- Explains that "one-stop career centers" are being developed in 16 states with federal funding to bring together comprehensive, integrated career services, such as information on job training, education programs, and financial assistance, in accessible locations like libraries and malls.
- Argues that the "new career contract" signals a shift from organizational to individual careers and should help adults develop internal criteria for success that enable them to achieve self-fulfillment in any domain.
- Explains that career counseling is a personal matter.
- Explains that in the era of organizational restructuring and technological change, individuals can no longer plan on spending their entire working lives with one organization.
- Opines that adult career counseling is an exploration of personal identity and meaning in this culture. women's career development remains entangled with family issues, role conflict, sex discrimination, and harassment.
- Recommends locating the individual client on a continuum of ethnocultural identity, identifying the relative importance of personal or cultural characteristics to an individual.
- Explains that counselors must ensure that career assessment instruments used with adult clients are appropriate.
- Explains fouad, spreda, and mirvis, p. h. "the new career contract."
2081 wordsRead More - Lowman, Rodney L. (1991). The Clinical Practice of Career Assessment: Interest, Abilities, and Personalities (1st ed.). Washington: American Psychological Association.
In this essay, the author
- Explains holland's theory of vocational personalities and work environments as the premier structural theory behind modern counseling.
- Explains that holland has researched the education levels of the different types of personality categories and reports his findings in the occupations finder.
- Explains that the next level on holland's scale is level 5, which states that a person must have more college education than the forth level.
- Explains that holland's theory of vocational personalities and work environments is the dominate modern measurement for vocational interest. his theory states that each category has its own definite characteristics, but each type is related.
- Explains holland's theory that there are six different occupational personality types. they are realistic, investigative, artistic and conventional.
- Explains how chacko, de fruyt, mervielde, and gottfredson developed a psychological classification scheme for vocations and major fields.
- Cites lowman, rodney l., robinson, c. and plata, m. on the effects of gender, socioeconomic status, and early academic performance on postsecondary educational choice.
1831 wordsRead More - Holland Theory Of Career Developmentexplanatory essayCareer Development is a “continuous lifelong process of developmental experiences that focuses on seeking, obtaining and processing information about self, occupational and educational alternatives, life styles and role options” (Hansen, 1976). The above statement I have follow through my career .
In this essay, the author
- Explains that the world "career" refers to what one does to make a living, an occupation, trade, profession, vocation. it also considers one's education and unpaid work experiences.
- Explains that career development is a continuous lifelong process of developmental experiences that focuses on seeking, obtaining and processing information about self, occupational and educational alternatives, life styles and role options.
- Explains that there are several careers theories, such as parson's theory, which ignores transferable skills, and has been criticized for being limited in terms of cultural validity.
- Explains holland theory, which focuses on five different life stages, such as growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline.
- Explains that women's dreams in levinson 1798 sense are more complex and compounded than traditionally work focused dreams of men.
- Narrates how they became a certified accountant, certified banker, and certified auditor after being hired by popular bank.
- Explains how they were promoted to 37-years-old due to their new qualifications, hard work, dedication, establishment, and absorbing laiki assets.
- Analyzes how super himself recognized his theory lacked comprehension and integration. it had been criticized for being rigid in which not all people’s lives fit into these life stages.
- Explains that the above theories may not apply to the 21st century. globalization, temporary and contract work, outsourcing of jobs and gender, ethnic, and age diversity in the workplace have affected the validity of career theories.
- Explains that studying msc business management will help them become a better team leader and improve their managerial skills.
883 wordsRead More - Experiential Methods for Acquiring Self-Knowledgeanalytical essayLester, J. S., and Perry, N. S. Assessing Career Development with Portfolios. ERIC Digest. Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services, 1995. (ED 391 110)
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how learners of all ages, elementary to adult, can expand their self-knowledge by exploring their interests and the importance of those interests to their personal satisfaction.
- Explains that self-knowledge is the first of three integral competency areas in the national career development guidelines.
- Opines that experience is integral to knowing and understanding oneself and how one relates to different situations, circumstances, and roles.
- Describes problem-based learning, an instructional model based on constructivism, where learners construct their own understanding by relating concrete experience to existing knowledge.
- Explains that problem-based learning requires students to self-direct their search for a solution by assuming the role of key actors in the problem situation.
- Opines that problem-based learning is essential for students' career development, since students are the real problem solvers.
- Explains how brain-based learning can help students enhance their self-knowledge. understanding the effects of physiology on learning, the importance of focused attention and peripheral perception, and the relation between emotions and learning helps individuals better understand how to improve their learning.
- Explains that new methods of performance assessment can contribute to students' self-knowledge in relation to career development.
- Explains that performance assessments may also be based on criterion-referenced tests that enable students to compare their performance with clearly defined learning tasks or skill levels.
- Explains that the portfolio concept helps educators meet this challenge by giving students ownership of their work and establishing the standards by which they will be measured.
- Explains lock's use of inventories as a way to assess personality in relation to occupational interests. inventories such as the six holland personality environment types, the strong interest inventory and career assessment inventory, and the myers-briggs type indicator can provide students with information about their personality and learning style.
- Argues that self-knowledge requires reflection on what was learned and what needs to be learned, the process by which learning occurred, and how that learning has enhanced what the student knows about himself/herself in relation to work.
- Explains that many educational approaches emphasize the importance of having students take charge of their own learning. students can enhance their awareness of themselves for their career development by continually summarizing and reflecting upon what they are learning as they continue their progression through school and work.
- Explains the use of a structured career development group to increase career identity.
- Explains lester, j. s., and perry, n.s. assessing career development with portfolios. eric digest, greensboro, nc, 1995. lock, r. d. taking charge of your career direction.
1511 wordsRead More - According to Maree and Beck, traditional career counseling involves a heavy emphasis on psychometric tests, work sheets and computer programs were utilized to form an objective image of the individual. As a result the assessment drives a “image” that is usually matched with the character and traits suited to a logically matched specific career. If the values, interests and abilities of the individual were considered congruent with the requirements of a specific career, the assumption was made that the individual would find that career stable, productive and satisfying. The 'matching', 'objective' image was accepted as generally seen as concrete, real, and true. However, the traditional method deprives an individual of the opportunity explore their interests because the heavy testing emphasis generally created a label for a cl...
In this essay, the author
- Explains that career counseling must have a base or framework in traditional theoretical counseling. solution-focused therapy is the main mode of counseling for them.
- Explains that traditional career counseling involves a heavy emphasis on psychometric tests, work sheets, and computer programs to form an objective image of the individual.
- Opines that solution focused career counseling is geared toward a life design, focusing on the basic facets of work, leisure, friendships, and family life.
- Opines that the solution-focused model of career counseling is versatile and positive orientated framework.
694 wordsRead More - The Theoretical Framework Of Social Cognitive Career Theoryexplanatory essaySocial cognitive career theory (SCCT) emphasizes cognitive-person variables that enable people to influence their own career development, as well as extra-person, contextual variables, which enhance or constrain personal agency (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). SCCT attempts to understand the processes through which people form interests, make choices, and achieve varying levels of success in educational and occupational pursuits (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2000). Cognitive-person variables include qualities such as self-efficacy and personal goals that enable people to exercise personal control or agency in their own career development; while environmental variables consider a person’s physical attributes, features of their environment, and particular learning experiences which have influence on career-related interests and choice behaviors. Environmental variables can be further divided into two basic categories according to their relative proximity to the career choice-making process. Distal factors are those which have had an impact on the learning experiences through which expectations have developed, for instance the type of career role models to which one is exposed and the support or encouragement one receives for engaging in
In this essay, the author
- Explains that social cognitive career theory emphasizes cognitive-person variables that enable people to influence their own career development, as well as contextual variables, which enhance or constrain personal agency.
- Explains that objective environmental variables can affect one's career development, whether or not one specifically recognizes their influence. scct highlights the temporal period during which particular environmental influences occur, making it particularly relevant for examining college students.
- Explains that most scct research has focused on cognitive-person variables such as self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals, but little research on how these variables are affected by environmental factors.
- Explains that in a knowledge-based society, critical thinking and lifelong learning have taken on increased economic importance. traditional academic governance allows individual teaching faculty to determine the content of their syllabi.
- Explains that educators across time have failed to agree on the definition of critical thinking. socrates, plato, and aristotle encouraged students to realize that things were often not what they seemed to be.
- Explains that lifelong learning and critical thinking have been adopted as general education core curriculum goals in colleges and across disciplines, but the means for achieving these goals is not addressed in the education literature.
- Explains the disconnect between definitions of information literacy and critical thinking, which tends to fall along librarian/teaching faculty/administrative lines, illustrates the differing opinions regarding which group should be responsible for teaching these overlapping skill sets
- Explains breivik's position that one can be a critical thinker and still be information illiterate. the middle states commission on higher education’s accreditation guidelines focus on attributes associated directly with information literacy: analyzing content, creating knowledge, and applying it to projects or products.
- Analyzes how the society for human resources' 2006 conference report reflected employers' growing frustrations over the lack of skills in new workforce entrants, including critical thinking/problem solving skills, ethics/social responsibility, information technology, and lifelong learning/self-direction skills.
- Explains that college students are making major financial decisions that will have lasting financial implications, but many come to college with little preparation, experience or knowledge of how to manage money on their own.
- Explains that counseling students about their estimated debt-to-income ratio entails an integration of three areas typically housed in separate departments: financial aid, academic advising, and career counseling/placement.
1871 wordsRead More - Theories Of Career Development Theoriesexplanatory essayThey also concern with career adjustments people make over time. The career development theories are of great value for teacher and counsellor because they need to seek constantly for insight into the reasons that stimulate students to make certain career choices. Only by doing so, they will be able to understand and help them. Researches have been conducted in an attempt to develop systematic theory of career development so that the students can get proper guidance. According to Johnson (2000), Career development theories can be grouped into two categories: Structural and Developmental.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that structural theories try to describe characteristics of both the person and the work place. a systematic examination of these characteristics is undertaken to help individuals match their characteristics to the most suitable environment.
- Explains the trait-and-factor theory, which focuses on individual traits but does not account for changes in values, interest, skills, achievement, and personality over a lifetime.
- Explains holland's theory that the choice of a career is an extension of one’s personality into the world of work.
- Explains that consistency is the degree of relatedness personality type and environmental models. some pairs or types have more common than others.
- Explains that differentiation is the degree to which a person is well defined. persons and environments differ in degree of differentiation and saturation.
- Explains that identity refers to the clarity and stability of goals, interests, talents, etc. in the case of persons.
- Defines congruence as correspondence between personality type and environment. different types of personalities require different environments to flourish.
- Explains that people orientated towards the realistic type prefer acting out problems or being physically involved in performing work tasks. they avoid tasks involving interpersonal and verbal skills and see concrete rather abstract problem situations.
- Explains that investigative type prefers to avoid close interpersonal contact, though the quality of their avoidance seems different from that of realistic colleagues.
- Explains that artistic types dislike structure and prefer tasks emphasizing physical skills and interpersonal interactions. they tend to be introspective and social in manner of the investigative but differ in that their interests are more stereotypically feminine than masculine.
- Explains that social types gravitate towards activities that involve promoting the health, education, and well-being of others. they are socially skilled and averse to isolative activities.
- Explains that enterprising types use their skills for self-gain rather than to support others, as do social types. they aspire to attain power and status while conventional types honor others for it.
- Explains that conventional types prefer structure and order and seek interpersonal and work situations where structure abounds.
- Explains that a theory organizes and systematizes what is known about the phenomenon. it provides direction and when tested and supported, can assist in expanding our knowledge.
- Explains that calculus refers to the relationship between types and environments in hexagon model. holland identified six categories in which personality tpyes and job environments can be classified.
1315 wordsRead More - In summary, what I have taken away from learning more about the career counseling process, which is validated by this article, is that one-size career paths do not fit all. As well, as counselors, need to address all area that are pertinent to the client or student. We need to help the whole package. As well, a non-traditional career choice is totally ok and that we should encourage our students to peruse what will be in their best interest for career and life success.
In this essay, the author
- Explains the basic premise of the pathways to prosperity article that the current educational system fails to prepare our youth for the job market.
- Analyzes symonds' point that our educational approach to preparing out youth is to focus on the academics that are required to enter a four-year college.
- Opines that career counseling needs to model regular counseling to combat the problem of students entering the workforce without career preferences and goals.
- Explains that the emphasis is shifting from a four-year college culture. only 30% of americans hold bachelors degrees, resulting in an underdeveloped "mechanical skill" market.
- Analyzes how symonds posits that there are 16 main career clusters in today's job marker. a partnership between high schools, community members, and technical institutions can close the gap in the mechanical skills market.
- Opines that counselors need to look at the student as a whole, not just the sum of their parts, to help them create their own story, path, and goals.
- Concludes that one-size career paths do not fit all, and that counselors need to address all areas pertinent to the client or student. a non-traditional career choice is totally ok and encourage students to peruse what will be in their best interest for career and life success.
729 wordsRead More - Career Assessment In Counsellingexplanatory essayYou will most likely see career assessment and counseling in a broad range of employment settings. For example, mental health agencies, Veteran Affairs hospitals, rehabilitation centers, and school and college counseling offices. The most crucial types of career counseling measurements are interest, aptitude, and values better known as “the Big Three”. “ Other measures pertinent to career counseling include measure of career choice and development, such as the Career Maturity Inventory and Career Decision Scale. The different career assessment measures have been used to (a) increase client self knowledge, (b) help clients make career choices and (c) encourage client participation in career counseling” (Hays, 2013, p.16).
In this essay, the author
- Explains assessment is the term counselors use to better understand the characteristics of people, places, and things. it can be therapeutic and help clients understand past and present attitudes and actions as well as their plans for future.
- Explains problem orientation, problem identification, decision making, and verification. the counselor and client should discuss how the client will know the problem has been solved.
- Explains the importance of career assessment and counseling in a broad range of employment settings, such as mental health agencies, veteran affairs hospitals, rehabilitation centers, school and college counseling offices.
- Explains that school counselors are in elementary, middle and high school settings. they use a number of tests to assess their students.
389 wordsRead More - A Summary and Critique of S. Seibert and M. Kraimer’s Research Paper on The Five-Factor Model of Personality and Career Successanalytical essaySeibert, S. E., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). The five-factor model of personality and career
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes the relationships between the "big five" personality dimensions and career success. they surveyed 318 males and 178 females, in a diverse set of occupations.
- Explains that seibert and kraimer believed that neuroticism and job performance have a negative relationship. they expect neurotic individuals to experience performance reduction at lower activation levels making them less suited for higher level jobs.
- Explains that 2781 randomly selected alumni graduated from 3-30 years prior were mailed the study surveys, which included career-related control variables, alumnus’ personality and career outcomes.
- Explains that intra- and extrinsic career success was measured by self-reported variables, promotions, and salary. the five-factor model was tested by saucier's mini-markers.
- Explains how three regression equations were estimated, one for each measure of career success (salary, promotions and career satisfaction).
- Explains that hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported, but neuroticism had a negative relationship with extrinsic and intrinsic career success.
770 wordsRead More