Bioluminescent Fungi
INTRODUCTION
What is Bioluminescence?
The current paper main focus is on bioluminescent Fungi but the basic features of bioluminescence discussed are common to all bioluminescent organisms. Bioluminescence is simply light created by living organisms. Probably the most commonly known example of bioluminescence by North Americans is the firefly, which lights its abdomen during its mating season to communicate with potential mates. This bioluminescent ability occurs in 25 different phyla many of which are totally unrelated and diverse with the phylum Fungi included in this list (an illustration of a bioluminescent fungi is displayed in figure 1). One of the features of biological light that distinguishes it from other forms of light is that it is cold light. Unlike the light of a candle, a lightbulb, bioluminescent light is produced with very little heat radiation. This aspect of bioluminescence especially interested early scientists who explored it. The light is the result of a biochemical reaction in which the oxidation of a compound called "Luci
ferin" and the reaction was catalyzed by an enzyme called "Luciferase". The light generated by this biochemical reaction has been utilized by scientists as a bioindicator for Tuberculosis as well as heavy metals. On going research involving bioluminescence is currently underway in the areas of evolution, ecology, histology, physiology, biochemistry, and biomedical applications.
History of Bioluminescent Fungi
The light of luminous wood was first noted in the early writings of Aristotle which occurred in 382 B.C.(Johnson and Yata 1966 and Newton 1952) The next mention of luminous wood in the literature occurred in 1667 by Robert Boyle who noticed glowing earth and noted that heat was absent from the light. Many early scientists such as Conrad Gesner, Francis Bacon, and Thomas Bartolin all observed and made notation of luminous earth(Johnson and Yata 1966 and Newton 1952 ). These early observers thought that the light was due to small insects or animal interactions. The first mention that the light of luminous wood was due to fungi occurred from a study of luminous timbers used as supports in mines by Bishoff in 1823. This opened the way for further study by many other scientists and by 1855 modern experimental work began by Fabre ( Newton 1952).
Fabre established the basic parameters of bioluminescent fungi, those being:
• The light without heat
• The light ceased in a vacuum, in hydrogen, and carbon dioxide
• The light was independent of humidity, temperature, light, and did not burn any
Enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) was originally isolated from a bioluminescent jellyfish called Aequorea victoria. As suggested by the name, this protein fluoresces green when exposed to light in the ultraviolet range. The ultimate goal of the following experiment was to successfully create a pET41a(+)/EGFP recombinant plasmid that was transformed into live E. coli cells. The success of this transformation could be evaluated based on whether EGFP’s fluorescence properties were displayed by the colony in question. The protein’s fluorescence properties “triggered the widespread and growing use of GFP as a reporter for gene expression and protein localization in a broad variety of organisms” (Ormo, et. al., 1996). Although EGFP and GFP differ for a few amino acids that make EGFP’s fluorescence mildly stronger, the basic principle that such a protein allows for the evaluation of transformation success remains intact.
Ryazantseva, I. N., Saakov, V. S., Andreyeva, I. N., Ogorodnikova, T. I. and Zuev, Y. F. 2012. Response of pigmented Serratia marcescens to the illumination. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 106 p. 18-23
In the end, regardless of the scientific methods that could be used to treat different diseases and more specifically retinal degeneration, many studies should be conducted determine the potential clinical application of photobiomodulation with NIR for treatment of different injuries and disorders.
Controlling chemiluminescent light was how Omniglow Incorporated became the first company to produce light sticks. In 1986, when the first light stick was invented, scientists thought they could make a lot of money selling light sticks. However, since they had to make light sticks by hand, it was harder for them to produce very many of them. Until machines were invented to make light sticks, it cost too much money to make them by hand.
Have you ever seen a stray animal on the side of the road and thought nothing of it? It is actions like that and others that continue to make this planet a cruel place for domestic animals to live. Many domestic animals are not created to destroy or harm anyone or anything. They are meant to be surrounded by loving caring humans who want to have a mutually beneficial relationship better them. Sadly, these animals are taken into shelters or pounds and if not claimed or adopted they are euthanized or become test subjects. According to PETA, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, “each year, more than 100 million animals are killed in U.S. laboratories for biology lessons, medical training, curiosity-driven experimentation, and chemical,
What organisms perform it? Most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs.
A police officer in the British Raj, the supposedly 'unbreakable'; ruling force, was afraid. With his gun aimed at a elephant's head, he was faced with the decision to pull the trigger. That officer was George Orwell, and he writes about his experience in his short story, 'Shooting an Elephant';. To save face, he shrugged it off as his desire to 'avoid looking the fool'; (George Orwell, 283). In truth, the atmosphere of fear and pressure overwhelmed him. His inner struggle over the guilt of being involved in the subjugation of a people added to this strain, and he made a decision he would later regret enough to write this story.
In Khaled Hosseini 's novel, The Kite Runner, an afghan named Amir must redeem his past actions in honor of a childhood friend. The novel is based around the relationship of Baba and Amir, as well as the relationship of Hassan and Amir. One day Amir’s world is shaken up by the rape of Hassan, making Amir chose which person means more to him, Baba, or Hassan. Khaled Hosseini proves that Amir comes full circle through Hosseini 's through his portrayal of Amir 's relationship with Hassan, Amir’s conflict with Assef, and Amir 's relationship with his father, Baba.
Animal testing is an intense contentious matter that has created a division among people; there are those who support and those who are against it. Animal testing, also identified as animal experimentation is when non-human animals are used in conducting experiments, especially in medicine. There are a number of unending debates on whether animal testing should continue or not, as some groups squabble that, it is an unethical process while others argue that it is ethical since it has large benefits on the health of humans. In addition, there is another group that advocates for the use of alternatives, instead of live animals. Although animal testing is considered as an inhumane and an unethical practice, it is crucial
Animal testing has been in practice since the early 300’s BCE, often used by ancient philosophers to advance the very little knowledge at the time in the field of biomedicine. Some of these philosophers who began animal testing are well known, such as Aristotle and Erasistratus. Another scientist named Ibn Zuhr came up with the idea of using animals to test surgical procedures on animals before beginning them on human patients (Hajar). Rachel Hajar, M.D., states that animal testing began to undergo criticism from animal welfare and protection groups because of the inhumane procedures inflicted on the animals. These groups had laws passed in many countries that gave the animals more protection when being researched upon. Scientists who support animal testing insist that it is necessary to expand our knowledge in the science and medicine world. Claude Bernard, a physiologist, says “Experiments on animals are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man. The effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences in degree” (“Animal Testing and Medicine”). Because of the large amount of debate ...
Throughout history, animal testing has played an important role in leading to new discoveries and human benefit. However, what many people forget are the great numbers of animals that have suffered serious harm during the process of animal testing. Animal testing is the use of animals in biological, medical, and psychological studies. The development and enhancement of medical research has been based on the testing of animals. There are many questions being asked if animal research is good or not or if the benefit for us is way greater the abuse of animals. Doing tests on animals can help find ways to cure diseases, but testing on them is wrong. Although we want to find cures for diseases to help many people, testing on animals not only brutally hurts them but it also denies the animals the rights they have.
The ‘entrance’ zone is climatically variable and is affected by the environmental conditions prevailing in the immediate outside environment of the cave whereas the ‘dim light’ zone (innermost part of the cave) is characterized by dim or no light; also, temperature is relatively stable through the year and relative humidity levels reaches the maximum values recorded in the cave. Another zone located between the entrance and the dim light zone (i.e. ‘transition’ zone) exhibits characteristics of either the entrance or the dim light zone (Christodoulou et al. 2015). Photosynthetic microorganisms are able to use light at various wavelengths between 400 -700 nm for primary production; it can be thus concluded that the progressive reduction of natural light controls the growth of photosynthetic microflora (Pantazidou 1996, Ascencio and Aboal 2000, Beltran and Ascencio 2009, Lamprinou et al. 2009, Roldan and Hernandez-Marine 2009, Christodoulou et al. 2011, Albertano
Animal testing is not a new thing. For many centuries scientists and testers in research have used animals of all kinds. Most of the animals are small ones like rodents - rats, mice, hamsters and gerbils. Some dogs, cats and a variety of goats, monkeys and rabbits have also been used. The animal rights issue is an emotional one. For decades the value of animal research has been grossly overrated. Although researchers claim that they depend on animal test data to achieve medical advances, we should demand other means of research and there should be laws assuring a minimum level of animal protection because testing on animals is cruel, inhumane, and often unnecessary. The American Medical Association has stated that it believes that research involving animals is essential to maintaining and improving the health of human beings. They point out that all advances in medical science in the 20th century, from antibiotics to organ transplants, has been achieved either directly or indirectly through the use of animals in laboratory experiments.
During the centuries prior to Young’s momentous discovery, scientists heavily debated lights properties. Through experimentation and observation, brilliant scientists such as Robert Hooke and Leonhard Euler proposed a wave theory of light; that it rippled outwards in all directions. However, Isaac Newton one of the most prolific minds of the time rejected such thinking, believing rather - that light worked the same way as particles. By the time Thomas Young came into place people generally believed in Newton’s thoughts of particle waves. So when Young presented a paper to the Royal Society, explaining his idea that light had wave-like motions, he was scoffed at and rejected. Like every great scientist though he relentlessly continued his research until he performed his famous experiment, proving that light did in fact move in a wave.
Sir Isaac Newton held the theory that light was made up of tiny particles. Before, most theories of light had an unexplainable phenomenon. Einstein had suggested that tiny particles which have energy, called protons, formes into light. This suggestion was made when he proposed a solution to the problems of observations discovered on the actions of light having the characteristics of both wave and particle theory.