DNA sequencing
Definition
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotide within a DNA molecules. It include any method or technology that order of the four bases – adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine in a strand of DNA.
Or “ The process of determining the order of bases in given DNA strand.
What can the DNA sequence tell us?
• Predict the sequence of amino acids of proteins encoded by the DNA
• Determines the composition of RNA molecules encoded by the DNA e.g., rRNA, tRNA
• Locate the position and determine the composition of introns in gene from eukaryotes
• Characterize the complete genetic make-up of an organism (Genome Sequencing)
There are main three methods for detecting DNA sequence
Use of Sequencing
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Human genome project is the biggest example of DNA sequencing. When the human genome was sequenced back in 2001, many issue rose but now after many year, we can see its impacts on medical and pharmaceutical research. Scientists are now able to identify the genes which are responsible for causing genetic diseases like Alzheimer's disease, Cystic fibrosis, myotonic dystrophy and many other diseases caused by the disability of genes to function properly. Many types of acquired diseases like cancers can also be detected by observing certain genes.
Use of Sequencing
DNA sequencing may be used to determine the sequence of individual genes, larger genetic regions (i.e. clusters of genes or operons), full chromosomes or entire genomes. Sequencing provides the order of individual nucleotides present in molecules of DNA or RNA isolated from animals, plants, bacteria, archaea, or virtually any other source of genetic information. This information is useful to various fields of biology and other sciences, medicine, forensics, and other areas of study.
Molecular
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This is a form of genetic testing, though some genetic tests may not involve DNA sequencing. In medical research, DNA sequencing can be used to detect the genes which are associated with some heredity or acquired diseases. Scientists use different techniques of genetic engineering like gene therapy to identify the defected genes and replace them with the healthy ones.
Forensics
DNA sequencing may be used along with DNA profiling methods for forensic identification and paternity testing. DNA sequencing has been applied in forensics science to identify particular individual because every individual has unique sequence of his/her DNA. It is particularly used to identify the criminals by finding some proof from the crime scene in the form of hair, nail, skin or blood samples. DNA sequencing is also used to determine the paternity of the child. Similarly, it also identifies the endangered and protected species.
The PBS documentary “Nova – Cracking Your Genetic Code” tells about the genome sequencing technology: its current possibilities, advantages, disadvantages and future potential. The system became cheaper, faster and more available since the first human genome was fully sequenced in 2000. Modern companies use the technology to provide clients with the information about their genes and impacts they can have on owners’ health. Hospitals can provide more accurate diagnosis and personalized treatments with the aid of the genome sequencing. The video shows several examples of these benefits. But it mentions concerns about the quality of services, risks of exaggerated
Many things have impacted both the Science and Medical fields of study. Electrophoresis and DNA Sequencing are two of these things. Together they have simultaneously impacted both of these fields. On one hand, there is Electrophoresis. Electrophoresis is a specific method of separating molecules by their size through the application of an electric field. It causes molecules to migrate at a rate and distance dependent on their size. On the other hand, there is DNA Sequencing. DNA Sequencing is a technique used to determine the exact sequence of bases
DNA is a vital tool in forensic medicine, when it comes to tracking down that killer or finding that liar in the courtroom. However, DNA fingerprinting for example is also used to identify what a person did based off of their remains. “The U.S. military takes blood and saliva samples from every recruit so it can identify victims of mass disasters such as airplane crashes.” (Marieb, 2009, p.459). After the 9/11 attacks,
DNA fingerprinting, or sometimes known as DNA typing, is isolating and developing images of sequences of DNA to evaluate the DNA in an individual’s cells. DNA fingerprinting today is used for many different things in many different areas of science. In forensic science, DNA typing can determine which person did which crime by using blood or skin left at a crime scene. In medical science, patients can find out who their siblings, parents, or children are by using DNA fingerprinting (webmd).
Throughout the years many people have asked the same question, ‘What is Genomics and is it really ethical?’ Genomics has been seen as unethical and it is largely frowned upon in many societies today but scientists believe otherwise. Genomics has recently become a major breakthrough for scientists and they are working on many ways to show the world that it is in no way unethical and could benefit us and generations to come. Genomics is the study of a genome which is the complete set of DNA in organisms. In this field, specialists go through thorough efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of an organism and map out its genetics. With this information scientist are able to study the genes that are involved in diseases like cancer, diabetes and heart diseases and possibly find a way to alter them so that those types of serious diseases may be avoidable for future generations. Fred Sanger was the first man to originate Genomics when he sequenced the genomes of a virus and of a mitochondrion, him and his group established different genomic techniques of sequencing between 1970 and 1980. From 1970 till know Genomics has grown into The Genomic Science Programme which falls under The Human Genome Project and both are led by the National Human Genome Research Institute in America and in April 2003 this project was successfully completed with a high-quality version of the full human genome available for public view.
So why is the genome so important? Because it is not only what determines many every day characteristics, it is also what determines genetic diseases that affect so many people. Therefore increasing knowledge of the genome will give us more knowledge not only about these diseases but how to cure them. In 1990, a project called the U.S. Human Genome Project was launched in order to discover all the genes in human DNA as well as the sequences of the nucleotides that make up DNA. With this knowledge we hope to accomplish many things, one of which is gene therapy.
Genomic sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four DNA bases – thiamine, adenine, guanine, and cytosine– in the strand of DNA (NHGRI, 2011). In each organism, these bases are arranged in a unique and specific sequence, and it is this sequence that is the genetic code of the organism. Genomic sequencing has had an impact on nearly every field of biological research including human genetics and genomics, plants and agriculture, microbes, medicine, viruses and infectious diseases, environmental genetics and evolutionary biology. By first examining the development of gene sequencing technology we will be able to view its role in evolutionary biology, its contribution to phylogenetics, and how it has changed our understanding of the biological tree of life.
DNA sequencing is a way of identifying genes based on their DNA sequences. It is important when comparing base sequences of different organisms to determine the relationship between them. Polymerase chain reaction its the process of making several copies of DNA. When picking a sequence of DNA to copy, it is important to choose something universal that way the sequences can be accurately compared. A good choice is the Cytochrome Oxidase Gene found in the mitochondria. It is found in almost all living organisms because COI helps make ATP and living things need energy to live. The sequencing of COI can lead to major leaps in biotechnology in the area of identifying unknown species on a regular and consistent basis.
DNA is the abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is the genetic material found in cells of all living organisms. Human beings contain approximately one trillion cells (Aronson 9). DNA is a long strand in the shape of a double helix made up of small building blocks (Riley). There are four types of building blocks called bases connected with DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Each of the bases is represented by the letters A, G, C, and T. The bases are aligned in a specific order, adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine; this determines a person’s genetic trait (DNA Initiative).
This information can then be compared and analyzed to look for genetic markers and diseases.(Wiki, 2016) Often someone’s blood is drawn and then tested and put into electronic health records. Having an abundance of genetic records has allowed for quicker identification of disease markers and susceptibility based on one’s genome. Organizations such as biotech companies are amassing private collections of DNA to collaborate with population databases and biobanks in hopes of furthering knowledge about the populaces’ genetics.(Nature, 2013) At the University of Nottingham in the UK, scientists are using the collections of DNA to research the genetics of Alzheimer's disease and have already discovered 21 Alzheimer's risk genes. The availability of these DNA banks have helped scientists understand the biology behind Alzheimer’s and may lead to new treatments for the neurodegenerative disease.(Walker, 2014) DNA is the source of every protein, cell, etc. in our body, if we expand DNA banks we can discover treatments, preventions, and cures for many of the biggest diseases facing the world
The discovery of genome sequencing by Fredrick Sanger and his team of researchers in the early 70’s gave rise to one of the most empirical research methods that was ever to exist. This revolutionary research technique has allowed scientists to finally encode organisms down to their most basic properties; helping massively in our understanding of pathways, reactions and functions of organisms. The technique involves analysing the DNA of an organism’s genome and therefore all the genes that compose it. The DNA from an organism is run through an electrophoresis gel and the sequence produced is taken up and interpreted by a computer program to then present the nucleotide sequence of the organism. Genome sequencing of pathogenic organisms has lead to huge advancements in the fight against infectious diseases within human and veterinary medicine; three notably virulent infectious diseases of the veterinary world are bluetongue virus, equine strangles and bovine tuberculosis (Goodhead, 2012).
Genetic testing is the process of sequencing six billion letters of a human genome to possibly discover genetic differences, such as how cells carry the same genome but at the same time look and function different. Genetic testing is also the process that can give foresight into pathological diseases such as different types of cancer.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a self-replicating molecule or material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent in chromosomes. It encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses. Simply put, DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce. The discovery and use of DNA has seen many changes and made great progress over many years. James Watson was a pioneer molecular biologist who is credited, along with Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, with discovering the double helix structure of the DNA molecule. The three won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1962 for their work (Bagley, 2013). Scientist use the term “double helix” to describe DNA’s winding, two-stranded chemical structure. This shape looks much like a twisted ladder and gives the DNA the power to pass along biological instructions with great precision.
DNA analysis has come a long way since the beginning of any type of testing. Before DNA analysis became was used, or even used a widely as it is now, it was harder for law enforcement agencies to identify suspects of crimes. Now DNA analysis testing can determine the DNA of an individual, or a family member. DNA analysis is the process in which genetic sequences are studied. There are several different ways to analyze forensic DNA. This has had a great influence on the accuracy and reliability of DNA profiling that is used so commonly today by law enforcement and medical practitioners. So as the years have passed they have become precise with the results. They have became so good that some would say that they are too good. The analysis of
For example such as medicine, it can be sometime possible to reading DNA sequences and find out how some diseases occur. It can sometimes be possible to fight some infectious diseases or any form of disease by changing the DNA codons which cause most of these problems.