The attitudes and reactions toward women involved in the sciences during the 17th and 18th centuries were primarily negative. The role of a female at this time was extremely restrictive and traditional: They were expected to be obedient wives, mothers, and daughters. Only the very fortunate and elite women could hope to gain some form of education in academics, and even then they were restricted to literature and, occasionally, rhetoric. Because of this, women who dared to involve themselves in higher sciences were greatly oppressed by both their male counterparts and the general male public. They were even discouraged by those of their own sex. Although both sexes sometimes praised the learned women, these instances were few and far between …show more content…
Many husbands and relatives of learned women let them participate in their studies. German scientist Maria Sibylla Merian, who had emerged as an important entomologist by the beginning of the 18th century, was trained by her father, learning the art of illustration that she used to superbly describe her observations (Doc 3a). The German astronomer Maria Winkelmann was an assistant to her husband, Gottfried Kirch, and he even wrote about some of her contributions, including a particular morning around 2:00 a.m. where “...some nights before, I [Gottfried Kirch] had observed a variable star, and my wife (as I slept) wanted to find and see it for herself. In so doing, she found a comet in the sky. At which time she woke me, and I found that it was indeed a comet. I was surprised that I had not seen it the night before” (Doc 3b). Maria was also complimented by Gottfried Leibniz, an extremely knowledgeable scholar and philosopher. He remarked that she was “a most learned woman who could pass as a rarity.” He also went beyond the scope of applauding just Maria and regarded the female sex as a whole, writing that he had “...often thought that women of elevated mind advance knowledge more properly than do men” (Doc 3c). Although men did sometimes speak highly of educated women, the instances were rare and the idea was definitely not a common view in the 17th and 18th
As the Reconstruction Era ended, the United States became the up and coming world power. The Spanish-American war was in full swing, and the First World War was well on its way. As a result of the open-door policy, England, Germany, France, Russia, and eventually Japan experienced rapid industrial growth; the United States decided to pursue a foreign policy because of both self- interest and idealism. According to the documents, Economic self- interest, rather than idealism was more significant in driving American foreign policy from 1895 to 1920 because the United States wanted to protect their foreign trade, property and their access to recourses. While the documents also show that Nationalistic thought (idealism) was also crucial in driving American foreign policy, economic Self- interest prevailed.
The Enlightenment is known as the revolution that brought to question the traditional political and social structures. This included the question of the woman’s traditional roles in society. As the public sphere relied more and more ?? and the advances in scientific and educated thinking, women sought to join in with the ranks of their male counterparts. Women held gatherings known as salons where they organized intellectual conversations with their distinguished male guests. Seeking to further their status, enlightened women published pamphlets and other works advocating for educational rights and political recognition. Even with this evolution of woman in society, many still clung to the belief that the role of the woman was solely domestic. The females that spoke up were usually deemed unnatural. However these women used the time period of reason and science that allowed them the opportunity to break away from their domestic roles and alter the view of women in society.
“Season of Hope” happened during 1870 to 1890. “Some blacks in the South pressured plantation owners into adopting individual family farming.” Also, black men’s voting rights were guaranteed and even some office accepted black. Benjamin Singleton, a slave who escaped from his owner tried to help other move to Kansas. Those who answered him were called “Exodusters”. Singleton helped black people start their own industries, even though he sooner realized he was not strong enough to do that. From 1890 the Southern states began to enforce white supremacy through disfranchisement and segregation. They tried to remove African-American from the vote list so that they could do whatever they want. Not only the race separation, black people were also
“The best way to predict your future is to create it” (Lincoln). President states the principal of Reconstruction, where to unite the United States, there must be an authoritative action to carry it out. The Reconstruction Era (1863-1877) is a period where Lincoln sought to restore the divided nation by uniting the confederates and the union and to involve the freedmen into the American society. The main objectives were to initially restore the union, to rebuild the South and to enact progressive legislation for the rights of the freed slaves. Thus, the executive and legislature branches had enacted a series of polices to “create the future” for the United States. Although the policies tied down to the Reconstructive motive, there was controversy
Throughout Europe in the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, nations were filled with poor and less fortunate individuals. While the nobles of countries such as France and England ruled their lands, many forgot about the underprivileged that roamed the city streets begging for alms. As a result, the opinions towards these lower class people were very differentiated. However, three main opinions stood out. All in all, the views of the poor in fifteenth – eighteenth century Europe included those who believed individuals should help the poor because it is the right thing to do, those who believed individuals should help the poor for God, and those who believed the poor were just idlers
As mentioned above, women’s role were unjust to the roles and freedoms of the men, so an advanced education for women was a strongly debated subject at the beginning of the nineteenth century (McElligott 1). The thought of a higher chance of education for women was looked down upon, in the early decades of the nineteenth century (The American Pageant 327). It was established that a women’s role took part inside the household. “Training in needlecraft seemed more important than training in algebra” (327). Tending to a family and household chores brought out the opinion that education was not necessary for women (McElligott 1). Men were more physically and mentally intellectual than women so it was their duty to be the educated ones and the ones with the more important roles. Women were not allowed to go any further than grammar school in the early part of the 1800’s (Westward Expansion 1). If they wanted to further their education beyond grammar, it had to be done on their own time because women were said to be weak minded, academically challenged and could n...
The sources that we do have regarding women are invariably from the perspective of men. `Women of Athens have kept a prudent silence' (Just: 1989, 1), therefore, all our knowledge pertaining to women is relative to a male conception of society. `The study of women is furthermore complicated by the fact that we have to study them almost exclusively through statements made by men' (Humphrey: 1983). In my essay I shall discuss the possible reasons why, and the extent to which the female voice was repressed.
In documents two and five the women’s interests in science, as well as their need for some sort of education were expressed. Document five simply explains that women, as well as men, can hold an interest, as well as succeed in science. In document two, written by Marie Meurdrac, a French scientist, the statement was made that “minds have no sex, and if the minds of women were cultivated like those of men, they would be equal to the minds of the latter.'; This was a very interesting document to examine. Being that it was a passage from the foreword to her text “Chemistry Simplified for Women';; the second earliest out of all the documents (1666), it was quite a revolutionary idea for that time. It explains a key fact about women participating in the field of science at that time. It talks about how a women, as well as a man, can aspire to become a scientist.
Education, as defined by female authors of the 1700s, is a privilege often awarded to young male individuals and neglected to all female individuals due to the specific social expectations of both men and women of the time period. While some women chose to accept these sexist expectations and continue living within such social boundaries, others became ambassadors of a movement to equalize education and break social norms throughout both genders. Author Mary Wollstonecraft expressed her exasperation with the absence of education standards for women by explaining how men viewed women as less than human:
“It is argued that the social construction of science as ‘masculine’ discourage girls from participating in science by posing the risk of pressure to themselves—as more masculine and less feminine than their peers (Breakwell, 2003, p. 437).”
She also made sure that her female students remained ladylike and didn’t damage their womanliness (“One Woman's Quest to Provide Higher Education for Women,” 343). This would presumably ensure that they were still considered more than suitable marriage material by retaining their feminine qualities, while also owning educated minds. She also helped opened the doors for women to have professions in
During the Scientific Revolution, some women performed research and experimentation of their own. These women were all upper class, because they had the access to education and science, but they also faced the most opposition from society. The doctors and medical professionals of the time said of these women that any learning, and even knowing how to read, would damage their ovaries (Barnett and Sabattini). Carl Friedrich Gauss, a French mathematician, said of women in science:
To begin, women have always been involved in science, even if it was not allowed or accepted in society. One of the first woman scientists known by name dates back to ancient Egypt. “Merit-Ptah
Unlike men, women’s education was subject to specific contents. For instances, women were taught to sew, paint, dance but not introduced to socially important field like history, philosophy, economics and others. The main focus on women education was on how to dress and behave and finally find a good husband rather than allowing them to think. They were encouraged to give more attention to their bodies rather than their minds. As a result of which, the body and behaviour became the main basis of which women were
In many cases, women’s achievements are measured according to male oriented standards. I would like to argue with a more diverse approach to this cause. If humanity is comprised of both men and women, and we are equally dependent on each other for humanity’s survival, why are men and women not viewed as equals? These old attitudes are drilled into us from birth. If boys were taught mutual respect as they grew up, gender equality becomes a natural way of life. In the same way girls would need to be taught to set high goals; that they can reach as high as humanly possible. Unfortunately, typically male values and traditions have, over time, shaped the culture in Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) fields. This has created, in many ways, a hostile learning and working environment for women. From time immemorial, women have been regarde...