CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides background information on the research topic. The first section provides a general overview of the anthropology of sports with sub-headings of anthropologists and their contributions to the study of sport and the body in the anthropology of sport. The second section provides a description of sport studies. The third section of the chapter sheds light on the meaning and application of sport. The fourth heading provides literature on relevant subjects to the anthropology of sports and sport studies. Finally, the fifth heading provides concluding thoughts for the chapter.
2.2 General Overview of the Anthropology of Sports
The anthropology of sport refers to “the application
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Adopting an anthropological questions, researchers frame fundamental questions around a wide range of theoretical models (Coakley and Dunning 2004:150). Researchers in the anthropology of sport tend to employ a distinctive framework within which to address among other things, specialised problems like gender and sport, sport and ritual, and violence in human society (Blanchard 1995:23). The anthropology of sport is primarily a behavioral science closely related to cultural anthropology (Blanchard 1995:23) and tied to the knowledge that sport is an institution and a component of culture (Coakley and Dunning 2000:151). Cultural anthropologists believe that play, sports, and physical activity are universal features of cultures, past and present. Following this rationale, the study of sport should enable researchers to access the quality and nature of social problems of particular cultures (Blanchard 1995; Chandler et al …show more content…
Tylor (1832-1917) was an evolutionist preoccupied with knowing the origins of things, and finding out the first examples of major attributes or traits (Gale 2008). He believed that sport could provide clues about prehistoric culture contact (Blanchard 1995:9-10).
Before the 1950s, sports researchers made important anthropological contributions. They wrote about sport among small scale societies, and pre-literate people. During this period, there were few occasions that articles on sport appeared in anthropology journals (Blanchard 1995; Chandler et al 2007). Early researchers in the field like Stewart Culin in1907 (also referred to as the “game scholar… in the field of anthropology,”) published his work titled Games of the North American Indians, in the the Bereau of American Ethnology. His work was published by Government Printing Office in Washinton D.C. (Dyck 2004). Karl Wuele in 1925 (a German scholar who did an ethnologic study of the origin and development of sports) had his work published in the Oceania journal (Coakley and Dunning 2002:146; Blanchard 1995:14). Other published works include Raymond Firth’s (1931) study of A Dart Match in Tikopia, his work was published in the Oceania (Dyck 2004). Lesser’s (1933) work
In Introduction to the Philosophy of Sport, Heather L. Reid presents a discussion of how ethics is treated in the arena of Olympism and some of the struggles of defining and how or if the ethical guidelines should be enforced. Reid notes, “Some would say that ethical principles are always the product of a particular culture, so there can no more be universal ethical principles than there can be a universal culture” (Reid, 22). I disagree with the notion that there cannot be universal ethical principles for athletes to follow in sport because even across cultures there are general morals that shape the lives of people from all over the world. For example, murder and cheating are inherently immoral actions, no matter where someone comes from;
Dunbar, Paul Laurence. The Sport of the Gods . 1901. Reprint. New York: Signet Classics, 2011. Print.
It goes without saying that a person's gender, racial and social origins influence their participation in sports. Particular races and genders often dominate certain sports. African Americans, for example, tend to dominate football and basketball, while Caucasians tend to dominate ice hockey. The same holds true for gender as well. Football is an entirely male dominated sport, while horseback riding, gymnastics and figure skating are much more female oriented. How and why did these divisions come about? Determining the origin of gender goes beyond the scope of this paper, however one can speculate about how gender classifications and stereotypes affect one's role in the sports arena.
Prebish, Charles S. Religion and Sport: The Meeting of Sacred and Profane (Contributions to the Study of Popular Culture). Westport: Greenwood Press, 1993. Print.
From the age of folk games to the age of televised sports (5th ed.). (pp. 62-63).
Sport plays a crucial role in today’s society. It is an activity that not only maintains an individual’s physical shape, but it is also capable of teaching people imperative aspects of life such as sportsmanship and teamwork. Despite these positive influences that sport can have on athletes, the issue of sexism in sport remains to be an extremely problematic factor in our society. I agree with Joe Humphrey’s view on sports to a large extent. In order to substantiate my perspective I will explore the topic of sexism in sport and discuss how gender inequality in sports creates barriers between groups, encourages unethical and discriminatory behaviour and makes us lose perspective of the true purpose of sport.
Anderson, E. (2011). Masculinities and Sexualities in Sport and Physical Cultures: Three Decades of Evolving Research. Journal Of Homosexuality, 58(5), 565-578. doi:10.1080/00918369.2011.563652
As it becomes increasingly acceptable for women to be athletic in American culture, a new question arises: in which sports should women be allowed to participate? From a physiological standpoint, it has been scientifically proven that female bodies do not differ significantly enough from male bodies to prevent them from participation in any "male" sports. This division between "male" and "female" sports clearly stems from age-old, socially constructed norms of femininity and masculinity. When women attempt to challenge these societal molds by participating in sports that are traditionally male, the intricate web of norms is disrupted. Like many other instances where traditional social constructions are tinkered with, individuals and communities are forced to reevaluate how they think about and categorize their surroundings. I would argue that women's participation in athletics, especially in non-traditional sports, is instrumental in breaking down stereotypes and social confines that have plagued women for centuries
The United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace. “Sport as a
Jarvie, G. (2012). Sport, Social Division and Social Inequality. Sport Science Review. 20 (1-2), 95–109.
Hult, J. S. (1994). The story of women's athletics: Manipulating a dream 1890-1985. In D. M. Costa & S. R. Gurthrie (Eds.), Women and sport: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 83-106). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
When a woman or man joins a non-traditional sport for their gender or sex, it can have drastic social and cultural costs. These impact not just the individual but also the entire community. When a person challenges the gender roles of society, then they change the perceptions of what men or women are capable of doing, they further androgynize cultural norms, and they open up sports for others.
Sports may have impacted our culture much more then we thought it would, and keeps impacting. Sports have affected some of the most important aspects of life, such as jobs and money. It has also affected things as little as who we look up to and how we dress. Culture means “the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively.” The definition of sports is “an activity involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual or team competes against another or others for entertainment.” So when we put two and two together we get a a nation or world that has changed due to sports. Back in the mid and late 1900’s sports were used to see whose way of life was better. As time went on and keeps going on, we
Research guided by conflict theory generally falls into the following categories: 1) studies of how athletes become alienated from their own bodies; 2) studies of how sports can be used to coerce and control people; 3) studies of sports and the development of commercialism in society; 4) studies of sports and various forms of nationalism and militarism; and 5) studies of sports and racism and sexism. (Coakley, 1998) In the book, Meggyesy provided examples of each of these categories which occurred during his footba...
Eisen, George, and Wiggins, David K. (1994). Ethnicity and Sport in North American History and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.