An Analysis Of George Berkeley And Descartes
analytical Essay
850 words
In Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous and Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, philosophers George Berkeley and René Descartes use reasoning to prove the existence of God in order to debunk the arguments skeptics or atheists pose. While Berkeley and Descartes utilize on several of the same elements to build their argument, the method in which they use to draw the conclusion of God’s existence are completely different. Descartes argues that because one has the idea of a perfect, infinite being, that being, which is God therefore exists. In Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous, Berkeley opposes the methodology of Descartes and asserts that God’s existence is not dependent on thought, but on the senses and …show more content…
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how philosophers george berkeley and rené descartes use reasoning to prove the existence of god in three dialogues between hylas and philonous and discourse on method and meditations on first philosophy.
- Analyzes how descartes doubts the validity of what he believed to be true according to the teachings of books and human opinions of his youth.
- Opines that when one doubts that one is incomplete and dependent, there comes to mind a clear and distinct idea of an independent and complete being, that is god, and draws the obvious conclusion that god also exists.
- Analyzes how berkeley rejects descartes' philosophy by arguing that matter, or sensible things, only exist within the human mind.
- Opines that men believe that all things are known or perceived by god, whereas i, on the other side, immediately and necessarily conclude the being of a god.
- Analyzes how berkeley deduces that the ideas that stem from the impressions of objects are not his own.
- Analyzes how rené descartes and george berkeley ventured to create a foundation of certainty and truth in their writings by proving the existence of god.
According to Descartes, “because our senses sometimes deceive us, I wanted to suppose that nothing was exactly as they led us to imagine (Descartes 18).” In order to extinguish his uncertainty and find incontrovertible truth, he chooses to “raze everything to the ground and begin again from the original foundations (Descartes 59).” This foundation, which Descartes is certain to be the absolute truth, is “I think, therefore I am (Descartes 18).” Descartes argues that truth and proof of reality lies in the human mind, rather than the senses. In other words, he claims that the existence of material objects are not based on the senses because of human imperfection. In fact, he argues that humans, similarly to Plato’s Allegory of the Cave, are incapable of sensing the true essence or existence of material objects. However, what makes an object real is human thought and the idea of that object, thus paving the way for Descartes’ proof of God’s existence. Because the senses are easily deceived and because Descartes understands that the senses can be deceived, Descartes is aware of his own imperfection. He …show more content…
Although their methods and reasoning contrasted one another, both philosophers methodically argued to come to a solid, irrefutable proof of God, which was a subject of great uncertainty and skepticism. Through Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous and Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes and Berkeley paved the way towards an age of confidence and faith in the truth of God’s perfect existence actively influencing the lives of
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- Descartes Meditation 1 Analysisanalytical essayHe argues that if he does not solve God’s existence, he will not be certain about anything else. Thus, Descartes says that he has an idea of God and, therefore, God exists. However, in order to be certain of His existence, Descartes provides proofs that will illustrate his reasoning. The four proofs include formal reality vs. objective reality, something can’t arise from nothing, Descartes cannot be the cause of himself, and therefore, the bigger cause is God. Now that Descartes knows God is real, he must solve another aspect, which is if God can be a deceiver. Descartes believes “it is clear enough from this that he cannot be a deceiver, since it is manifest by the natural light that all fraud and deception depend on some defect” (89). In other words, God possesses all of the perfections that Descartes cannot have but those perfections that are in his thoughts, concluding that God has no defects whatsoever according to the natural
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how descartes narrates the search for certainty in order to recreate all knowledge in meditations on first philosophy.
- Explains that natural light is the trustworthy skill that identifies truth from falsity. spontaneous impulse allows descartes to believe it because humans are taught by nature.
- Analyzes how descartes builds his foundation of certainty from the natural light through the examination of god's existence.
- Analyzes how descartes explains god's existence as a non-deceiving entity of natural light in meditation iv.
- Analyzes descartes's work, saying they're an amateur philosopher. they think natural light is having awareness that manages knowledge of truth through its own light.
- Explains that natural light has a significant meaning to the studies and explorations of this course. plato, descartes, or aristotle wrote about existence, virtues, and soul.
- Analyzes how descartes' meditations provide a basis for knowledge because one's senses can be sometimes misleading. with such beliefs, he moves forward in finding the foundation of knowledge and its certainty.
958 wordsRead More - Descartes is interested in the certainty of his existence and the existence of other people and things. Descartes’ beliefs vary from those of Socrates. Descartes argues that knowledge is acquired through awareness and experience. Using this approach, Descartes moves through doubt to certainty of his existence. He asks himself various questions about the certainty of his existence and solves them through clear thought and logic. Using this method Descartes establishes doubts to be truths and by the end of the book, he has established that he does indeed exist.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how descartes is interested in the certainty of his existence and the existence of other people and things. he argues that knowledge is acquired through awareness and experience.
- Explains how descartes moves through doubt to certainty, using the cogito, proves god's existence, and discusses the general rules of truth that he establishes.
- Explains that descartes wants to establish that his knowledge is certain and not doubtful. he first looks at the senses, which causes doubt.
- Analyzes how descartes realizes that dreams pose an obstacle to his beliefs. even up close, dreams can be indubitable.
- Analyzes how descartes realizes that he cannot rely on his senses anymore to give him dubitable truths. he turns to find something that is indubitably.
- Analyzes how descartes finds that geometry and arithmetic can be trusted because there are no senses involved. the only thing that could make these truths dubitable is through the intervention of an evil deceiver.
- Explains that descartes cannot prove that god is good and has to acknowledge god's power to deceive. he must doubt all things until he can prove their certainty.
- Analyzes how descartes affirms his existence every time he thinks, doubts or is persuaded.
- Explains that descartes affirms that if there is an evil deceiver, he must exist. he can only prove his existence in the mental capacity.
- Analyzes how descartes melts a piece of wax to understand his relationship between his body and mind.
- Analyzes how descartes makes a link between the senses and the mind in his third meditation. if god is an evil deceiver, then this cannot be true.
- Explains that descartes uses three points to establish the existence of god: adventitious ideas, invented ideas and innate ideas.
- Explains that descartes uses two more points to further establish that god exists. he uses the ideas of "infinite" and "perfect".
- Analyzes how descartes concludes that god does exist and therefore is not an evil deceiver. god has supplied us with the innate ideas of perfection and infinity.
- Analyzes how descartes proves that doubt is not universal, and that there is a general rule of truth.
- Analyzes how descartes explains that god exists and cannot be an evil deceiver, but why are humans imperfect and perpetually making errors?
- Explains that free will allows humans to make choices and decisions free from the influence of god. free will interferes with god's ability to help humans, which leads to poor decisions.
- Explains that descartes' fifth and sixth meditations begins with the establishment of his remaining doubts and the application of what he has discovered.
- Analyzes how descartes reiterates that god is not an evil deceiver and therefore he can clearly conceive something to be true. imperfection isn't compatible with god's omnipotence.
- Analyzes how descartes solves his second problem: the existence of corporeal (physical things) exist with certainty. since god is not an evil deceiver, the idea of physical things is accurate.
- Analyzes how descartes realizes that he has a body, which is ill-disposed when it feels pain, and that god is not an evil deceiver. he now can distinguish between being awake and dreaming.
- Analyzes how descartes concludes his meditations and uncertainties by establishing certainty to his doubts. john locke disagreed with his theories.
- Compares the beliefs of locke, an empiricist, to those of socrates. he argued that when a person was born their mind was empty.
- Analyzes how locke proposes three different possibilities about truth. the first is that there is no such thing as truth, the second is the no way to obtain truth and the third is implied things but not be absolutely certain about them.
- Explains that locke states that not all innate ideas come from "natural ability" and that a universal consent does not prove them. they could arise from experience.
- Explains that descartes and locke were two men with completely different views. they each set out to prove their own existence in a different fashion.
2292 wordsRead More - René Descartes Does Not Reject Sense Perceptionanalytical essayDescartes began his argument in the First Meditation by questioning or calling into doubt everything that he knew. After examining all the things he thought he knew about himself and the world he concluded (the details of that argument are beyond the scope of this essay) that the only thing he knew with absolute certainty is that I am, I exist (Section 25). Having established the fact that he has a real existence of some kind he then said But I do not yet understand...
In this essay, the author
- Explains that their mind is responsible for their understanding of wax in the various forms it can take, but it is an inspection on the part of the mind (mentis).
- Argues that rené descartes' argument does not necessarily reject any role of the senses in the process of understanding.
- Analyzes how descartes began his argument by questioning or calling into doubt everything he knew about himself and the world. he equates mind, intellect, understanding, reason, and soul with thinking.
- Analyzes how descartes explains that the senses provide the raw material for the operations which the mind performs.
- Argues that the wax illustrates the difficulty of relying on our senses for an understanding of the world around us.
- Explains descartes, rené's meditations on first philosophy: in which the existence of god and the distinction between the mind and body are demonstrated.
- Explains that both the veitch and cress translations seem to ignore the latin word animus which descartes listed between mens and intellectus.
2400 wordsRead More - Comparing Descartes And Berkeley's Philosophianalytical essayGod plays a central role in both Descartes’ and Berkeley’s philosophies. In idealism, the theory is that there is no such thing as matter, and only ideas and the mind exist. Berkeley denies the existence of matter. In Berkeley’s philosophy, God’s central role is the perceiver of all things. God is the ultimate Mind that perceives everything all of the time. According to Berkeley, matter does not exist and the mind is the only reality. His argument states that ideas only exist in the mind and all things are ideas. These premises infer that all things only exist in the mind.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that god plays a central role in both descartes' and berkeley's philosophies. in idealism, the theory is that there is no matter, and only ideas and the mind exist.
- Explains that descartes believes that there is matter in reality. he believes in dualism, which states that the mind and body are two separate things.
- Analyzes how god plays a crucial role in descartes' and berkeley's philosophy. god is the main connection between matter and mind.
- Explains berkeley's theory that god is the ultimate perceiver of all things and the mind that constantly exists. an object does not cease to exist when we are not there to witness it.
491 wordsRead More - Analysis Of Descartes Foundationalismanalytical essayDescartes’ first foundational argument asserts that one can have knowledge of one’s own existence. The claim is essential to many arguments that follow because it survives his “Deceiver Hypothesis.” This hypothesis states that “there may be a powerful deceiver of supreme power who is deliberately and constantly deceiving me” (Med III, p. 17). This demonstrates that we cannot know, or be sure of, anything based on sensory experience alone. However, Descartes supports the idea that some things can be known entirely outside of sensory experience; through the use of logic and re...
In this essay, the author
- Describes the foundationalist structure of descartes' arguments in his work meditations on first philosophy.
- Explains that descartes' first foundational argument asserts that one can have knowledge of one's own existence.
- Analyzes how descartes' cogito holds up against the deceiver hypothesis, arguing that in order to be "deceived", we must first exist as minds. few philosophers would think it worthwhile to argue against this conclusion.
- Argues that the argument sacrifices something for the sake of simplicity. it assumes that there must be an immaterial and separate mind that is acting out these processes.
- Analyzes how descartes's claims aren't structurally sound, and if true, may invalidate the rest of his arguments.
- Analyzes how descartes' counterargument would be similar to what he wrote in response to the sixth objection. he defends the cogito by stating that the mind is separate from the body.
- Explains descartes' ontological argument, which is based on epistemic knowledge or logic, and builds up the argument to prove that the material world exists.
- Argues that descartes' claim that existence is a perfection is at best questionable. he believes perfection can be objectively and logically determined based on cultural norms and ideals.
- Argues that descartes' idea of god is infallible, as the concept of a perfect being varies from culture to culture. once we doubt the objectivity of perfection, the argument falls apart.
- Argues that descartes may argue against my objection by stating that it is only that which we clearly and distinctly perceive that can be known.
- Analyzes how cartesian foundationalism is an attractive structure of argumentation, declaring basic tenets and building on these to construct a line of reasoning based on deduction from previous conclusions.
- Analyzes how the paper doesn't address the prompt. it does not discuss arguments in favor of foundationalism or descartes' arguments. there's little focused discussion of what you take to be the problem with the position.
1378 wordsRead More - Descartes' Proof for the Existence of Godanalytical essayMany readers follow Descartes with fascination and pleasure as he descends into the pit of skepticism in the first two Meditations, defeats the skeptics by finding the a version of the cogito, his nature, and that of bodies, only to find them selves baffled and repulsed when they come to his proof for the existence of God in Meditation III. In large measure this change of attitude results from a number of factors. One is that the proof is complicated in ways which the earlier discourse is not. Second is that the complications include the use of scholastic machinery for which the reader is generally quite unprepared -- including such doctrines as a Cartesian version of the Great Chain of Being, the Heirloom theory of causaltiy, and confusi ng terms such as "eminent," "objective" and "formal reality" used in technical ways which require explanation. Third, we live in an age which is largely skeptical of the whole enterprise of giving proofs for the existence of God. A puzzled student once remaked, "If it were possible to prove that God exists, what would one need faith for?" So, even those inclined to grant the truth of the conclusion of Descartes' proof are often skeptical about the process of reaching it.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how readers follow descartes with fascination and pleasure as he descends into the pit of skepticism in the first two meditations.
- Explains that this page aims to help students analyze the complex elements of descartes' proof into simpler parts and explain how those work.
- Analyzes how descartes has made some progress towards defeating skepticism at the beginning of meditation iii.
- Analyzes how descartes comes up with a criterion of certainty at the beginning of meditation iii, stating that all truths have in common the proper ties of being clear and distinct.
- Advises that if you are puzzled about what the terms "clear and distinct" mean, you might want to search the electronic text of the meditations available on this web site.
- Analyzes how descartes could doubt that 2 + 3 = 5 or that he exists by considering that god may have given him a nature which could be deceived about such th ings.
- Opines that when they turn to the things themselves which they perceive, they are so convinced by them that they spontaneously cry out, let whoever can deceive me, he will never bring about that i am nothing, so long as i continue to think i'm something.
- Opines that descartes can hardly bring himself to doubt the truths of mathematics, any more than he can his own existence.
- Opines that descartes' metaphysical source of doubt needs to be removed to render the truths of mathematics or even the cogito-over-time, certain.
- Explains how descartes will remove this metaphysical or hyperbolic doubt by proving that god exists and is not a deceiver.
- Explains that descartes' means are limited. he knows for certain that he himself exists and that his essence is to be a thinking thing.
- Explains that they have reached the beginning of the proof, at atvii 37 (pg. 88 in cottingham, and the last paragraph on pg
- Explains that some of their thoughts are images of things, and to these alone properly belongs the name idea. others, again, have certain other forms, such as fear, affirm, or deny.
- Opines that if ideas are considered only in themselves, and are not referred to anything beyond, they cannot be false.
- Opines that all their ideas are of the class which they call adventitious, or that they are all innate.
- Analyzes how descartes begins by classifying the kinds of ideas he finds in his mind to determine which of them are proper bearers of truth and falsehood.
- Analyzes how descartes makes mistakes in making judgements. he mistakenly held that the sky and stars existed, simply because they appeared before his mind.
- Explains that descartes classifies his ideas by their origin. some ideas appear innate, others adventitious, and still others have been invented by him.
- Explains that descartes has two reasons for thinking that ideas rese mble things. one is that nature seems to have taught him this, and the other is many ideas appear in his mind independent of his will.
- Analyzes how descartes dismisses these considerations as weak. being taught by nature, it means that "some spontaneous impulse leads me to believe it, not that its truth has been revealed by some natural light."
- Explains that descartes' proof for the existence of god begins with a new way to investigate the question of the external causes of ideas.
- Explains that ideas do not differ from one another with regard to truth because they appear before the mind and seem to come in the same way. but different ideas are considered as images which represent different things.
- Explains cottingham's footnote to the sentence quoted above, which clarifies both the term 'objective' and formal.
- Explains the scholastic distinction invoked in the paragraphs that follow, that the 'formal' reality of anything is its own intrinsic reality, while the "objective" reality is a function of its represntational content.
- Explains that descartes uses another scholastic term in regard to reality, that is 'eminent' reality.
- Explains that substances have more formal reality than modes and accidents. descartes uses the non-technical term 'thing' as a replacement for substance.
- Explains descartes' claim that infinite substances have more reality than finite ones.
- Asks descartes why he holds that infinite substances are more real than finite ones, despite accidents and modes depending on substances for their existence.
- Explains descartes' use of scholastic terminology as a clue to the great chain of being doctrine. the principle of plenitude suggests that god will create as much good as possible.
- Argues that descartes's dualism, his distinction between mind and body, flatens the chain to just two links, but this is not the case.
- Analyzes descartes' view that though one idea may originate from another, an infinite regress is not possible.
- Analyzes how descartes is going to exploit this point in proving the eixstence of god. if the objective reality of an idea is so great, he cannot be the cause of that idea.
- Analyzes descartes' ideas of god, corporeal and inanimate things, angels, animals, and men like mysel f.
- Analyzes how descartes turns to his idea of god to consider "whether there is anything in the idea which could not have originated from myself."
- Explains that god is an infinite, independent, supremely intelligent, and powerful substance that created both myself and everything else.
- Analyzes how descartes concludes that god necessarilty exists, which sounds like we are at the end of the proof.
- Explains how reconstructing descartes' proof for the existence of god is different from a summary of an argument. reconstructions are useful for detailed evaluation.
- Explains that the first step in reconstructing descartes' proof is to start with the conclusion.
- Explains that descartes had an idea of god which had so much objective reality that it could not have been made by him.
- Explains that ideas are either innate (inborn or known from one's own nature), adventitious (come from outside me) or made by me.
- Explains objective reality is the reality characterisic of ideas in virtue of the fact that the idea represents some realty.
- Explains that some ideas have more objective reality than others, depending on the formal reality of the things which they represent.
3413 wordsRead More - The Mind and the World: Descartes Meditationsanalytical essayDescartes presents three skeptical arguments in his meditations which shows he has reason to doubt all of his sensory beliefs. Descartes ultimately aims to free himself from all bad beliefs. His quest for certainty is driven from his belief that our belief system is built on a foundation of basic beliefs, that are not justified, in turn, causing him to believe that all his other beliefs are uncertain, as well. His method for achieving a system immune from errors is described in three steps from Meditation One. Descartes three skeptical arguments pose a few objections to the plausibility to each step.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how descartes presents three skeptical arguments in his meditations which shows he has reason to doubt all of his sensory beliefs. his quest for certainty is driven from his belief that our belief system is built on a foundation of basic beliefs, that are not justified.
- Explains that descartes' method of doubt suggests that in order to find out which beliefs are stable and which are not, he will withhold assent.
- Explains descartes' third and most powerful argument for skepticism, the dream argument, where he argues if there is a way to distinguish dream from reality.
- Analyzes how descartes suggests that it may be possible that we are being deceived by an evil demon.
- Analyzes how descartes' three skeptical arguments give reason to doubt all beliefs deriving from the senses.
- Explains larkin, w. phil 111: introduction to philosophy.
995 wordsRead More - Descartes Existence Of God Analysisanalytical essayIn conclusion, Descartes described many theories as to why he believes that God exists. From creating rules to breaking down his thought process, you can see where he gets his reasoning’s and ideas behind Gods existence. Although he had many proofs to Gods existence, his reasoning’s appeared to be unclear in many circumstances resulting in the original question whether God exists or not.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes descartes' argument for the existence of god in the third meditation and the second meditation.
- Explains that descartes' thoughts aren't error-free, but there is only error in the judgment of whether the idea is right or wrong.
- Analyzes how descartes' ideas are innate, adventitious, and invented by him.
- Explains descartes' rule that an idea can't exist without a cause, while objective reality is when ideas represent reality.
- Analyzes how descartes explains that he is imperfect because of his doubts. he determines different characteristics that god possesses just from observing himself.
- Explains that descartes discovered qualities within his existence, which led to the rule that all things that are clear and distinct are true.
- Analyzes how descartes uses what he envisions to be imperfect to determine which qualities are perfect and which are not.
- Explains that their final difficulty in discovering proof involves the concepts of formal and objective reality. they don't agree with the fact that in order for them to have an idea, it would exist.
- Concludes that descartes described many theories as to why he believes that god exists, from creating rules to breaking down his thought process.
1154 wordsRead More - The Cartesian Circle is Wronganalytical essayRene Descartes meditations on the existence of God are very profound, thought-provoking, and engaging. From the meditations focused specifically on the existence of God, Descartes uses the argument that based on his clear and distinct perception that cannot be treated with doubt, God does exist. In the beginning of the third meditation, Descartes proclaims that he is certain he is a thinking thing based on his clear and distinct perception, and he couldn’t be certain unless all clear and distinct perceptions are true. Before diving into the existence of God, Descartes introduces smaller arguments to prove the existence of God. For example, Descartes introduces in his argument that there are ideas in which he possess that exists outside of him. Utilizing the objective versus formal reality, Descartes states “If the objective reality of any of my ideas turns out to be so great that I am sure the same reality does not reside in me, either formally or eminently, and hence that I myself cannot be its cause, it will necessarily follow that I am not alone in the world, but that some other thing which is the cause of this idea exists” (29). In other words, the ideas of objective reality that resides in Descartes can potentially only come from a supreme being, which is God; God possess more objective reality than he does formal reality. We as humans, as Descartes states, are finite substance, and God is the only infinite substance. The only way for us as a finite substance to think of an infinite substance is possible if, and only if, there is an infinite substance that grants us the idea of substance in first place. After these smaller arguments, Descartes states that while we can doubt the existence of many things, due to the fact that ...
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how rene descartes' meditations on the existence of god are profound, thought-provoking, and engaging.
- Explains that descartes' argument has been treated with dubious standpoints, such as the cartesian circle, which argues that he goes against his own word.
- Analyzes how descartes challenges himself to take on other arguments, such as that he may be supremely perfect, and that all his deficiencies are potentialities within him.
- Argues that the cartesian circle comes in play because descartes, misunderstanding his writing and phrasing of it, declares that we can only be sure of our clear and distinct perceptions if god exists.
- Opines that descartes was not interested in trying to prove that god exists because of our clear and distinct perceptions.
- Concludes that descartes' assertion that the intellect cannot outthink god or understand his ways is not enough to prove that god exists.
- Argues that descartes' purpose was to prove that god exists, and he has given us clear and distinct perceptions to consume the idea of god.
- Concludes that descartes' argument may have sounded confusing and the cartesian circle had a solid foundation and belief, but he was trying to make the point that god must exist in order for him or us to dwell on the idea of god.
- Describes descartes, cottingham, et al., meditation on first philosophy: with selections from the objections and replies.
1602 wordsRead More - An Examination of the Second Meditation of Descartesanalytical essayAn Examination of the Second Meditation of Descartes Baird and Kaufmann, the editors of our text, explain in their outline of Descartes' epistemology that the method by which the thinker carried out his philosophical work involved first discovering and being sure of a certainty, and then, from that certainty, reasoning what else it meant one could be sure of. He would admit nothing without being absolutely satisfied on his own (i.e., without being told so by others) that it was incontrovertible truth. This system was unique, according to the editors, in part because Descartes was not afraid to face doubt. Despite the fact that it was precisely doubt of which he was endeavoring to rid himself, he nonetheless allowed it the full reign it deserved and demanded over his intellectual labors. " Although uncertainty and doubt were the enemies," say Baird and Kaufmann (p.16), "Descartes hit upon the idea of using doubt as a tool or as a weapon. . . .
In this essay, the author
- Explains descartes' method of carrying out his philosophical work involved first discovering and being sure of a certainty and then reasoning what else it meant one could be certain of.
- Analyzes how descartes writes the longest paragraph in his "synopsis of the following six meditations" on the second meditation.
- Analyzes how descartes opens the meditation almost in a frenzy, apparently on the verge of panic about the prospect of "losing" the reality he'd known all along.
- Analyzes how descartes concludes that only thought is inseparable from his identity.
- Analyzes how the meditation is devoted to descartes' famous examination of a piece of wax. he pauses and considers that if he perceives the wax to exist at all, then there must be an "i" doing this perceiving.
- Opines that descartes' preface to the reader is of surprisingly little assistance in preparing oneself for the reading of the meditations to come.
- Opines that descartes could have done a better job of preparing or following his synopsis in the case of the second meditation.
- Opines that the meditation can be divided into two parts: the proof for the existence of self, and that for objects independent of the self.
- Opines that descartes' assertion that external objects are "understood" comes from nowhere and is nowhere supported.
- Analyzes how the second meditation reveals the mathematical, rational basis on which descartes' methodology rests, and the rationalism inextricable from the thinker's philosophy.
1585 wordsRead More