Amphetamine (AMPH) exerts its effects by releasing monoamines from presynaptic neurons and by blocking monoamine reuptake. AMPH most prominently releases norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA), and to lesser extent of serotonin (5-HT) [11]. Although AMPH blocks the action of transporters at dopaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic neurons, its positive effects exerted on cognition and attention appear to be mediated primarily at the level of prefrontal cortex and involves dopamine (DA) neurotransmission, which acts particularly through D1 receptors [ 12, 13].
Apart from the therapeutic effects of amphetamine, its abuse is linked with severe neuropsychiatric complications, which include the development of psychotic states. These negative effects may partly be related to neurotoxic effects induced by drug, including damage to dopaminergic and serotonergic terminals, apoptosis of neurons, along with activation of astroglial and microglial cells in the brain. Acute side-effects of AMPH include hypertension, hyperthermia, tachycardia, increased muscle tension, liver and renal failure, nausea, blurred vision, ataxia, anxiety, psychosis and seizures. Chronic AMPH abuse leads to impairments attention and memory, learning problems and compromised decision making. Although, the mechanisms of toxicity mediated by AMPH are not completely clear, but they appear to involve dopamine release, uptake at dopaminergic terminals, oxidative stress and the activation of p53-dependent and mitochondria-mediated cell death pathways [14].
Psychostimulants monotherapy is used conventionally as first-line treatment of various neurological disorders, but they have also been employed in combination with other psychostimulants, neuroleptics or antipsychotic...
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...and devising a combination therapy helpful for enhancing the beneficial effects and reducing the side-effects of amphetamine. Another aim of this study is to identify altered expressed proteins that can serve as potential biomarkers for AD and to check the effects of administered amphetamine on the protein profile of normal and AD mice. Advance proteomics techniques will be used including two-dimensional electrophoresis, immunoblotting, immunoflourescence and tandem mass spectrometry and several behavioral tests. In silico analysis will also aid in for protein-protein interaction and protein modeling studies using PDB databases, ClustalW, SWISS MODEL, AutoDock and VMD. The study will be helpful to provide a better understanding of role of psychostimulants specifically amphetamine on learning and memory and its possible effects on protein expression and interaction.
ADHD is believed to be caused by abnormalities in the dopamine neurotransmitters in the brain (Berne 4). The symptoms of ADHD include inattention, impulsiveness and hyperactivity that are inappropriate for a person's age level. In other words, the patient’s brain is like a light constantly going off and on at the worst possible times. Although there is no cure for ADHD, treatment can help control symptoms. Stimulant therapy is the most commonly used type of treatment. These drugs improve ADHD symptoms in 70 percent of adults and 70-80 percent of children shortly after starting treatment (ADHD 3). Adderall RX, or its formal name of Methylphenidate, is the most common form of treatment for ADHD. In an article by Dr. Phillip W. Long, he states that, “The mode of action in man is not completely understood, but meth...
Stahl, S. M., & Mignon, L. (2010). Antipsychotics: Treating psychosis, mania and depression (2nd ed.).
The need for Ritalin and other CNS stimulants arises from a decreased amount of dopamine—a hormone closely linked to the motivational process((3)). A deficiency of this hormone can lead to difficulty in focusing and agitated behavior, among other traits1 ((1)). Methylphenidate, serving as a stimulant, augments the release of this hormone. The resulting state is similar to that after caffeine, on a milder scale, or amphetamines1 ((1)). This attribute can lead to the somewhat addictive nature of the drug.
-Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis SM, Davis CE, Lebowitz BD, Severe J, Hsiao JK. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med. 2005. Web.
United States. National Institute of Mental Health. “Mental Health Medications.” 2008. Health and Education. Web. 16 Nov. 2013
The use of psychotropic medication in children and adolescents dates back to 1937 when Charles Bradley conducted a study by prescribing the stimulant amphetamine sulphate (Benzedrine) to modify the behavior of children with severe behavioral disturbance. (Adams, 1991) Since these studies were conducted, more and more children and adolescents have been prescribed stimulants, antidepressants, antipsychotics, and mood stabilizers for various mental disorders, such as: depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The potential side effects that happen to children taking these medications can include: fainting, blurred vision, vomiting, extreme weight gain, and even death ("Seroquel information,” n.d.).
Hodgkins, P., Shaw, M., McCarthy, S., & Sallee, F. R. (2012). The pharmacology and clinical outcomes of amphetamines to treat ADHD. CNS Drugs, 26(3), 245-68. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11599630-000000000-00000
...ng pubertal period and leads to the loss of around 40% of the synaptic connections in order to improve working memory and higher linguistic ability is taken too far leaving fewer synapses in the frontal and temporal lobes (Feinberg 1983). This is usually associated with abnormality in Glutamate and Dopamine transmission. It was previously reported that substance abuse early in adolescence such as the abuse of an antidepressant can induce schizophrenia in people and many drugs were already tested on animal models such as the Amphetamine and Phencyclidine PCP (Mouri et al. 2007), hence the idea of using Bromocriptine, a psychotic drug to induce schizophrenia in mouse models and by that proving that this drug can induce schizophrenia in people especially when it is administered early during puberty where abnormal neural changes might occur due to overuse of such drugs.
According to Gamble and Brennan (2000), the effectiveness of medication for schizophrenia to relieve patients from psychotic symptoms is limited. Although patients have adequate medication, some received little or no benefit from it and almost half of them still experience psychotic symptoms. They are also more likely to suffer relapse (Gamble and Brennan, 2000). Furthermore, Valmaggia, et al. (2005) found that 50% of patients who fully adhere to anti-psychotic medication regimes still have ongoing positi...
Crystal meth is a sub-category of amphetamine. Amphetamines are synthetic amines- which are similar to the body's neurotransmitter: norepinehrine and the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline). Amphetamines stimulate the reticular activating system. This activation is transmitted to all parts if the brain. This process causes the user to become aroused, alert and hypersensitive to stimuli- such as sun light.
The most commonly abused substances are Nicotine, Inhalants, Alcohol, Cocaine, Amphetamines, Prescription medications, Heroin, Ecstasy and Marijuana. 1a(National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2011) Initially, a person may find themselves using substances voluntarily and with confidence that they will be able to dictate their personal use. However, over the period of time that drug use is repeated, changes are taking place throughout the brain, whether it is functionally or structurally. Drugs contain chemicals that enter the communication system of the brain and disturb the way in which nerve cells would typically send, receive, and process information. The chemicals within these drugs will cause a disruption to the communication system by either imitating the brain’s natural chemical messengers or by over-stimulating the brains “reward system” by sending mass amounts of dopamine. As an individual prolongs his or her use of these substances, they may develop an addiction.
the left of a pair of crystals that are a mirror image of each other.
Substance addiction is becoming an epidemic. While some people can quit using a substance without any help, most people need help to their recovery. Narcotics anonymous is an important support group for our society. There are many different narcotic anonymous programs to join that have meetings throughout the week. The members of the support group all share one thing in common, they suffer from different types of chemical dependency. Members help each other because they have the same problems and worries that everyone in the room has. Though they may be struggling with different stages in their life, for the most part, they all relate to what each is going through. Just as AA, NA focuses on the 12-step program. The members of
Watanabe-Galloway, S., Ryan, S., M.D., Hansen, K., M.P.H., Wullsiek B., B.A., Muli, V., M.P.A., & Malone, A.C. (2009). Effect of Methamphetamine abuse beyond individual users Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 4131, 241-8.Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/207970885?accountid=41057
Amphetamines are typically used to provide the same effect that pure adrenaline does. The drug is specified for people with attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity as well as narcolepsy, although if you decide to abuse the drug and use it for recreational purposes you may start to feel paranoia and nervousness. Using amphetamines can also put a strain on the circulatory system by causing the user's blood pressure to increase suddenly. (Amphetamine) Long term psychological effects of the drug can cause something called amphetamine psychosis which is much like paranoid schizophrenia. This could lead towards hallucinations, paranoid delusions, and obsessions. (Amphetamine)