A Look Into the Human Genome Project
Would people buy a set of books that repeated the same four letters in random order page after page? Or would this information be more convenient to the public if on a computer disc? Many people would agree with the idea that this set of books would be boring. Surprisingly, America and the rest of the world are buying the information in this set of books. In fact, these books contain the human genome. The mapping of the genome (or writing this set of books) is a 15-year project that has brought many ethical issues to attention.
History of the Human Genome Project
The United States Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health joined forces in 1990 to kick off a 15-year effort to reach two goals:
Catalog the genes in human DNA
Determine the three billion bases (the four letters in the set of books) in human DNA that encode for genes (U.S. Dept. of Energy 1998).
On the international level, the Human Genome Organization (HUGO) was founded. Their goal is to encourage trading of research findings and techniques (National Reference Center 1998). From the national standpoint it brings back memories of The Manhattan Project. Internationally, this cooperation is unprecedented (Shinn 1996). Before the organization of the Human Genome Project, the Department of Energy had biologists and physicists studying the Hiroshima survivors. From this data a GenBank was made. This was the first database for DNA sequences (Gert, et al. 1996).
Watson, who won the Nobel prize for his discovery of the double helix, was appointed as the first director of the Human Genome Project. He appropriated three percent of his budget to ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) involved with the project (Shinn 1996). Even from the beginning it was anticipated that this project could have both positive and negative outcomes.
One goal to be reached after five years was to have markers every ten centimorgans (Gert, et al. 1996). This goal was stated in 1991 and achieved in 1994 - a year ahead of schedule - when a map with markers every two to five centimorgans was published (Casey, et al. 1995). Sequencing would then follow with a focus on areas of disease and in reducing human error. The main goal for the next five years would be markers every one centimorgan (Gert, et al. 1996).
Technical Aspects
Ideally, the final map will have both physical and genetic information.
In 1990, the first great stride of genetics took place. This was called the Human Genome Project, a large-scale operation that was designed to understand the human genome (genetic structure). Since its commencement, there have been many leaps and bounds that have taken place. For certain genetic issues that we once knew nothing about, we no...
Zielinski, Sarah (22 January 2010). Cracking The Code of The Human Genome. Smithsonian.com. Retrieved from www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/henrietta-lacks-immortal-cells-6421299/?no-ist
The first chapter focuses on Brazil’s founding and history up until present. When the Portuguese were blown off course to Asia onto the coasts of Brazil in 1500, the Portuguese knew they had found a land filled with opportunities. The main attraction was the abundance of brazilwood which could be used for manufacturing luxurious fabrics in Europe. Over the centuries, exploration led to the discovery of more resources such as sugar, coffee, and precious metals that had made it a sought after country for colonization. Even to this day, Brazil maintains the image of a land with limitless resources since the recent discovery of oil and gas reserves and other commodities.
The more we know about genetics and the building blocks of life the closer we get to being capable of cloning a human. The study of chromosomes and DNA strains has been going on for years. In 1990, the Unites States Government founded the Human Genome Project (HGP). This program was to research and study the estimated 80,000 human genes and determine the sequences of 3 billion DNA molecules. Knowing and being able to examine each sequence could change how humans respond to diseases, viruses, and toxins common to everyday life. With the technology of today the HGP expects to have a blueprint of all human DNA sequences by the spring of 2000. This accomplishment, even though not cloning, presents other new issues for individuals and society. For this reason the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) was brought in to identify and address these issues. They operate to secure the individuals rights to those who contribute DNA samples for studies. The ELSI, being the biggest bioethics program, has to decide on important factors when an individual’s personal DNA is calculated. Such factors would include; who would have access to the information, who controls and protects the information and when to use it? Along with these concerns, the ESLI tries to prepare for the estimated impacts that genetic advances could be responsible for in the near future. The availability of such information is becoming to broad and one needs to be concerned where society is going with it.
The book Genome by Matt Ridley tells the story of the relationship between genome and life by examining the twenty three chromosomes of the human DNA. Each chromosome literally and metaphorically becomes a chapter in the literal and metaphorical book of DNA. In this book of DNA, Ridley examines a particular aspect of the chromosomes chapter by chapter to see how it affects life and humanity’s understanding of life, humans and genetics itself. Although each chapter dives into different aspects of DNA and gathers stories as varied as the genes’ applications, Ridley connects them with important ideas about life and humanity’s understanding of life.
Watson, James D. "The Human Genome Project: A Personal View." Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. 7th ed. Ed.
2. Previous Research: There is a debate as to whether Internet use has a positive or negative impact in our social lives. One study found that for 40% of the college students in their sample, the Internet had been instrumental in the formation of new friendships. Moreover, 7% of their sample had used the Internet to find a romantic partner. The participants in the study claimed that one of the main benefits of communicating through the Internet was reduced social anxiety and shyness (Knox, 2001). In another study, there was evidence that lonely individuals were more likely to use email and the Internet in order to stay connected with others—in theory, giving them a healthier social life—however, evidence showed that heavy use had a negative social impact (Morahan-Martin, 2003). Finally, another study found that individuals comfortable or regularly involved in social gatherings reported more positive effects from Internet use than shy individuals less involved in their community (Kraut, 2002).
The genetic technology revolution has proved to be both a blessing and a blight. The Human Genome Project is aimed at mapping and sequencing the entire human genome. DNA chips are loaded with information about human genes. The chip reveals specific information about the individuals’ health and genetic makeup (Richmond & Germov 2009).The technology has been described as a milestone by many in that it facilitates research, screening, and treatment of genetic conditions. However, there have been fears that the technology permits a reduction in privacy when the information is disclosed. Many argue that genetic information can also be used unfairly to discriminate against or stigmatize individuals (Willis 2009).
Brazil is located in Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean. It is slightly smaller than the U.S., with bordering countries Argentina, Bolivia, Columbia, French Guyana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela. It has many natural resources, including bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, and timber. The climate is tropical in the north, but temperate in the south. The terrain consists of mostly flat to rolling lowlands, with some plains, hills, mountains, and a narrow coastal belt. In recent years, environmentalists have become increasingly concerned over the future of the Amazon region, where human life has threatened the world's largest intact rain forest. Brasilia is the capital and main source of modern industry.
Ridley, M. (1999). Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters. New York: HarperCollins.
Assessing the consequences of the information that the Human Genome Project may yield must be taken into consideration; the medical benefits must be weighed on a balanced scale with the ethical and moral ramifications to properly size up what we will do in the future. Residents of the Rio Grande Valley must be prepared to deal with the positive and negative aspects of this modern revolution that we call genetics.
The Brazilian culture is one of the world’s most wide ranged and diverse. This is a result due to it being a melting pot of nationalities, as a result of centuries of European domination as well as slavery, which brought large groups of African migrants across Brazil’s borders to live in and influence the local cultures with their ancient customs and ideas. The European settlers also brought ideas, innovations and belief systems with them, molding the local societies remarkably. All of these varying influences have made the modern-day Brazilian culture is unique and very elaborate (Meyer, 2010).
23andMe, a web-based service that helps customer read and understand their DNA, is an extremely determined firm in the genomic industry with its mission, “To help people access, understand and benefit from the human genome.” (Our mission). The culture of 23andMe was built on its six fundamental values and beliefs. First, “Think big” in terms of utilizing genetic data to modernize health, wellness, and scientific study. Second, “We love DNA” as study of DNA uncovers the secret behind the remarkable human diversity globally.
work together to construct a global partnership for sustainable development, we can achieve the goals set forth in Agenda 21
„X Strengthen partnerships involving United Nations agencies (in particular with the World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme), development banks, government development assistance agencies and sectoral institutions such as the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and private funding foundations such as the Conrad Hilton Foundation.