describe a rapid, novel, highly sensitive and cost-effective chromatographic method to simultaneously determine tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) clomipramine (CPM) and benzodiazepines (BZDs) diazepam (DZM), alprazolam (APM), clonazepam (CZM), oxazepam (OXM) in human plasma. Human plasma was pretreated using an improved solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure on C1 cartridges (100 mg, 1 ml) in order to eliminate endogenous interference and concentrate the analytes, then analytes were separated and determined by isocratic reversed-phase HPLC. HPLC was performed on a C8 column (4.6 × 150 mm, 5 μm), the column temperature was maintained at 45°; the mobile phase, 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 3.0) and acetonitrile (73.2:26.8, v/v), was used at a flow rate of 1.2 ml/min; the UV detection was carried out at 220 nm using diode array detector (DAD). The method was fully validated with good results in terms of selectivity, sensitivity, extraction yield, precision and accuracy. It was linear (r > 0.9994) in the ranges of 20-500 ng/ml for CPM, 5-200 ng/ml for APM and CZM, 10-500 ng/ml for DZM, and 7.5-2000 ng/ml for OXM; the limits of detection (LOD) were 3.2, 2.2, 1.1, 1.5, and 6.5 ng/ml for DZM, OXM, CZM, APM and CPM, respectively. Intra-day and inter-day precision revealed a coefficient of variation (CV) of 2.2-12.6% and 2.1-13.0%, respectively. Absolute recovery ranged from 81-101% for all analytes. The developed method was accurate, reproducible, convenient, and sensitive for routine therapeutic drug monitoring of CPM and the BZDs. Keywords: tricyclic antidepressant, clomipramine, diazepam, alprazolam, clonazepam, oxazepam, HPLC, SPE. The tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) clomipramine (CPM) is one of the most commonly prescribed drugs in the tr... ... middle of paper ... ...ation (LOQ) of 0.36-3.91 μg/ml, so the method is time-consuming and not suitable for therapeutic drug monitoring as the sensitivity is too low for application [18]. In the present study, we present a simple SPE procedure that has higher sensitivity, selectivity and extraction yields for the processing of plasma samples, and a faster, accurate quantification method for the simultaneous determination of CPM and APM, CZM, DZM, OXM in human plasma. The method was fully validated in terms of selectivity, linearity, sensitivity, precision, accuracy and stability in accordance with FDA guidelines for bioanalytical method validation [22]. This new, simple, and efficient sample-preparation procedure and chromatographic analysis with isocratic elution, for simultaneous measurement of CPM and BZDs in human plasma, is suitable for routine clinical therapeutic drug monitoring.
As previously stated, Lexapro is a Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are by far, the most frequently prescribed antidepressants ("Selective serotonin reuptake," 2013). SSRI’s work by increasing the levels of serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter in the brain (Mandal, n.d.). Serotonin regulates some aspects of the brain including mood, sleep and emotion (Mandal, n.d.). People with depression have low levels of serotonin so the SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, which means a greater amount of serotonin than usual remains available in the synaptic space between the two nerves (Mandal, n.d.). SSRIs relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety, are rather safe and generally cause less side effects than other types of antidepressants ("Selective serotonin reuptake," 2013). Lexapro tablets are film coated, round tablets containing esxitalopram oxalate in strengths equal to 5mg, 10mg, and 20 mg ("Lexapro," 2004).
Introduction: For my research project I would like to explore the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs. Antidepressant drugs are used are used to treat major depression and other conditions, some of which include anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, chronic pain and other disorders. Around the world antidepressants are used to cure these types of mental illnesses. It is argued by both medical professionals and other people whether or not they believe that antidepressants work. According to Mayo Clinic one in ten Americans take an antidepressant. Today, antidepressants have became the most common way around the world to treat major depression
However, a more direct investigation of the role of monoamines can be used through the neurotransmitter depletion model that can be seen in an experiment with tryptophan depletion and alpha-methylparatyrosine, which is used to lower levels of serotonin and induce catecholamine depletion, respectively, in the brain (Salomon, Miller, Delgado, & Charney, 1993). Results from this experiment show that, depending on the antidepressant used, such depletion rapidly reverses antidepressant responses in the majority of patients and that depletion in unmedicated patients with depression did no...
In summary, Laurence’s article sanctioning ketamine as a cure for depression is an interesting and well-written article, however, it could give people the wrong idea about ketamine. There is a rapidly increasing interest in the discovery of drugs targeting glutamate neurotransmitter in the brain, as a hope to rapidly treat treatment-resistant patients (Duman & Ronald, 2013). While the mentioned studies in the article and this essay have given insight into ketamine’s antidepressant effects, this is still something that needs to be researched further as a lot of unresolved problems are still around with ketamine. Furthermore, the potential side effects of ketamine, including bladder and kidney damage, hepatotoxicity and psychological effects still require extreme consideration.
Antidepressants are in no way uncommon to today's society. These drugs are used by millions of people everyday, young and old. Studies show that about one in every ten
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are currently one of the most controversial groups of medicines, with fluoxetine, more commonly known by its brand name Prozac, at the head of the controversy. Opponents of the use of SSRI medications as a successful and safe method for treating depression and related disorders assert that the actions of the drug are an unnatural and a dangerous form of tampering with our neurochemistry. Not only are these medications incredibly safe in almost all cases, they are actually an unnatural method of modifying an already disordered, natural sequence of chemicals in the brain, and therefore are not a form of tampering, but are a method for fixing a disorder. Therefore, SSRI medications have only indirectly caused or will cause us to re evaluate what it means to be human, by giving us the realization that, although we are not perfect, we are good enough at changing our environments (both externally and internally) to ensure successful and comfortable survival. The part that troubles us as a society is the relatively new ability to change our internal environments, just as we have been changing our external environment for centuries. Some see using medications that alter the chemistry of the brain as tampering with the very thing that makes us human. In
Hochadel, M. (2014). Mosby's Drug Reference for Health Care Professionals (fourth edition ed.). : Elsevier.
Comparison of the Effects of Antidepressants and Their Metabolites on Reuptake of Biogenic Amines and on Receptor Bindings. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, Vol.19, No.4.Denmark: Plenum Publishing Co. Science Direct, (2003).Fluoxetine inhibits A-type Potassium Currents in Primary Cultured Rat Hippocampal Neurons. Department of Physiology, Medical Research Center, South Korea.
First proposed by Schildkraut in 1965, was one of the main biological theories explaining depression, currently known as the ‘Monoamine Theory’. This theory suggests that depression is caused by dysfunction of the monoamine transmitters in the brain, resulting in a shortage of monoamines including 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and noradrenaline. ‘It is based on the ability of known antidepressants drugs to facilitate monoaminergic transmission, and of drugs such as reserpine to cause depression.’ (Rang and Dale’s Pharmacology) The hypothesis originated from the clinical connection between the drug used to alleviate symptoms and the neurological effects these drugs have on monoamine transmitters in the brain. This pharmacological evidence somewhat supports the monoamine theory but also contains several inconsistencies. The search for more direct evidence, including the investigation of the monoamine metabolism of depressives has become futile as inconsistent results are obtained and causes are not narrowed to depression. Supporting the theory is the amount of 5 HT detected by its metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid, urine and plasma...
Approximately 5% of the United States' population experiences a depressive episode that requires psychopharmacological treatment; in any one year, 10-12 million Americans are affected by depression, with the condition twice as common in females than in males. It has been estimated that 15% of patients hospitalized for depression will commit suicide. These figures are incredible, so finding the root of the problem when it comes to depression is extremely important. "Alterations in serotonin metabolism may be an important factor in the etiology and treatment of depression." (7).
As we discussed above that pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics can be seen as two sides of the same coin in order to gain better understanding of their efficacy and safety profiles.” Generally it is possible to make fairly robust predictions of the pharmacokinetic profile in man using in vitro systems and preclinical pharmacokinetic studies. A previously published survey on the causes of failure in drug development indicated that inappropriate pharmacokinetics were a major cause such as; factors as low bioavailability due to high extraction or poor absorption characteristics, short elimination half-life leading to short duration of action and excessive variability due to genetic or environmental factors. This observation has led to an increased emphasis on pharmacokinetic input to the drug discovery process throughout the pharmaceutical industry. However, it is important to realise that this may only permit the rejection of compounds to b...
The chitosan nanoparticles used widely as a drug delivery systems last few years. In the present study the Echis carinataus snake venom loaded chitosan nanoparticles were prepared based on ionic gelation of tripolyphosphate and chitosan.. The nanoparticles physicochemical characteristics , stability and biological activity of encapsulated venom were studied . The particles were spherical in shape and the tripolyphosphoric groups of TPP were linked to the ammonium groups of chitosan. Optimum particle size of chitosan and venom loaded nanoparticles were 89 and 116 nm, respectively. Optimum loading capacity and loading efficiency obtained by 500 µg/ml concentration of venom . The biological activity of venom remained intact during nanparticulation and showed no considerable reduction in stability analysis. Our results suggested that Chitosan nanoparticles, which prepared in this work possibly, could be used as an alternative for traditional adjuvants.
The patient still suffers from anxiety and has been taking the Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor - Fluoxetine 20mg (BNF 2014: 251-254) once daily since his last visit and the patient reports very low motivation due to a recent separation a...
Analysis of Aspirin Tablets Aim --- To discover the percentage of acetylsalicylic acid in a sample of aspirin tablets. ----------------------------------------------------------------- In order to do this, the amount of moles that react with the sodium hydroxide must be known. This is achieved by using the method of back titration.
Pauly, S. (2011, February). News from ABC: changes and challenges. Analytical & Bioanalytical Chemistry. pp. 1003-1004. doi:10.1007/s00216-010-4459-0.