We are living in a universe which is made of matter. However, according to the modern theories of cosmology, equal populations of matter and anti-matter should have been produced in the beginning of the universe. Then, a very natural and profound question arises; from where does the asymmetry between matter and anti- matter we are looking now come from?
A. Sakharov [1] pointed out that there are three essential elements to construct theories which can explain the excess of matter over antimatter in the universe:
1. departure from thermal equilibrium;
2. reactions that change baryon number have to occur in the early universe; and 3. the existence of CP violation.
Here, CP violation means there exists difference of properties between matter and antimatter. CP violation is thus one of essential elements in any attempt to understand the history of our universe.
Until 1964, physicist believed there was no difference between matter and anti- matter, despite antimatter has opposite-signed charge and internal quantum num- bers. In other words, it was believed that there was symmetry between matter and antimatter, that is CP symmetry. The violation of CP symmetry was (totally unex- pectedly) found in decays of neutral K mesons in 1964 [2]. Since then, an enormous effort has been done both theoretically and experimentally to reveal the origin of this phenomenon.
In 1973, Kobayashi and Maskawa (KM) [3] proposed a theory of quark mixing which can introduce CP violation within the framework of the Standard Model (SM) of elementary particle physics. They demonstrated that quark-flavor mixing matrix with measurable complex phase introduces CP violation into quark interactions. This requirement is satisfied if there are at least six flavors of qu...
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... there is such an effect, we should see opposite systematic effect between CP even and odd modes, since their asymmetry should be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. This is an excellent check of the measurement procedure. For these reasons B0 → J/ψKL mode is as important as the Golden Mode in sin2φ1 measurement, although it is expected to have more background due to experimental difficulty in KL detection.
Apart from other charmonium+K0 modes (like ψ(2S)K0 or χc1K0), next mode to be used in the φ1 measurement is B0 → J/ψK∗0, where K∗0 decays into KS andπ0. Although this decay mode is CP eigenstate and its decay proceeds with the same quark diagram as the Golden Mode, both decay products have spin 1 and the final state is a mixture of CP odd and even states. We must use angular information of decay products to separate contributions from different CP components.
Who would have ever thought the way a radioactive particle decays would relate to whether or not we have bad attitudes towards life? Who would have ever suspected that the structure of space-time would be so closely linked to whether or not we would marry rich wives? And who indeed would have ever expected that the properties of light might affect whether or not we go on homicidal rampages? Perhaps Kurt Vonnegut did. Could it be possible that a writer known more for his pictures of assholes than his knowledge of advanced physics actually centered some of the deepest concepts in his works on the philosophical implications of general relativity and quantum mechanics? Two of his greatest novels, Slaughterhouse-Five and Breakfast of Champions, both seem to hint at the relationship between modern physics and an idea philosophers call determinism. Vonnegut readers might well scratch their heads and flip through their copies of these books, searching the stories of the fragmented life of a war veteran and the deranged antics of a mad car salesman for a chapter on the Schrödinger wave equation they may have skipped. I freely admit that their search will be in vain, and that no truly concrete proof exists that Vonnegut based the ideas in these books on the latest discoveries of science. But I also contend that the parallels between Vonnegut’s work and advanced physics are a little too perfect to be a series of very lucky accidents. From this perspective, it seems likely that Vonnegut used ideas based on physics to support the idea of determinism in Slaughterhouse-Five and destroy it in Breakfast of Champions.
The Standard Model is known as a gauge theory, and is based on the symmetry group SU(3)C⊗SU(2)L⊗U(1)Y; as described in the previous section the symmetry group of standard model, describes the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions, via the exchange of 8 massless gluons and 1 massless photon, respectively, for the strong and electromagnetic interactions, and three massive bosons, W± and Z, for the weak interaction2. Leptons and quarks which are the building blocks of the fermionic matter, are characterized in the structure below,
In the visible universe, there is one type of event that is often responsible for a good deal of the varied phenomena we observe across the cosmos. A type of event whose effects are both destructive and creative. This event is the interaction of two or more galaxies. The results of a galactic interaction are so varied that each event is unique. Therefore, only a select few examples will be described in the following pages.
The amazing transformation the study of physics underwent in the two decades following the turn of the 20th century is a well-known story. Physicists, on the verge of declaring the physical world “understood”, discovered that existing theories failed to describe the behavior of the atom. In a very short time, a more fundamental theory of the ...
This research will be split into three sections, the Mass in C, the Mass in D, and then a comparison of both. Each beginning of each mass will contain the history...
The discovery also shattered the bootstrap model theory. This theory said that protons, neutrons, and other particles were the smallest units.
...overed that there are some obvious inconsistencies with the theory that have been overlooked by theorists.
even though the exact reason is not known. Without it not being known, it affects the theories of
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! Before the theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN), physicist George Gamow predicted that the energy of the Big Bang was enough to create all of the elements in the universe. Two of his students later calculated that this was not possible. (Scientific American) Since a certain amount of energy is needed for nucleosynthesis, or the formation of heavier nuclei from smaller nuclei or particles, ...
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Matter is energy (Fernflores 1). The fact that electron-positron interactions can either produce photons or...
Atoms have and always remain the same. Then, there’s the second principle which states, nothing is destroyed into nothing. “And if that which disappears had been destroyed and become non-existent, everything would have perished, that into which that things were dissolved being non-existent” (D.L., X, 39). As straightforward as it is, the elements (the atoms) that the universe is made up of cannot be destroyed and vanish; rather it is destroyed and takes the form of something else. At some point, everything gets destroyed but it does not eradicate because if everything gets eradicated, nothing would ever exist. The third principle he talks about surrounds this concept that kosmos is ever same. “For outside the sum of things there is nothing which could enter into it and bring about the change” (D.L., X, 39). The kosmos are infinite. With that being said, it will never have beginning because it has always existed, nor will it ever have an end because nothing vanishes when it is destroyed; it becomes
Since their discovery in 1955, antiproton production rates have increased by approximately an order of magnitude (which is one exponential increase) every 2.5 years as seen in fig. 1. It is predicted that a milligram to a gram of antimatter could be produced annually within the next decade. At present the main hinderence to antimatter production is the ability to accumulate, cool, and decelerate the antiprotons.
• A second principle, which concretises the beginning of the universe, is the second law of thermodynamics. As I quote the cosmologist Sir Arthur Eddington, said,