In 2013, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to James Rothman, Randy Schekman, and Thomas Sudhof for their pioneering research in cell signaling pathways. Together, they were able to solve many questions that we had about how this precise cell-‐to-‐ cell regulation is carried out. With their works, many scientists across the world can apply their discoveries in various ways.
Due to our profound genomic studies, we have been able to sequence many genomes of various organisms. With the research that we have done, we have seen many similar genetic sequences between yeast and certain human sequences, corresponding to our similar evolutionary ancestor. This has led many researchers to study human conditions by studying the yeast counterparts as model organisms, as Randy Schekman did in order to “identify certain genetic controllers in the cell’s transport system” (1). In his genetic studies, he studied defective transport machinery in yeast cells, which consequently led to the congestion of vesicles in certain parts of that organism since they were not being transported properly. By precisely observing all the genes that were in play in this condition, he pointed out certa...
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... to corresponding human genes. With our understanding of how transport vesicles bind to plasma membranes to transport their cargo, James Rothman identified protein complexes on the vesicles and target membranes that ensure precise binding. Lastly, Thomas Sudhof discovered certain calcium binding proteins on nerve cells that are only activated when
the nerve cells which to release neurotransmitters to communicate with other nerve cells at particular times (Temporal Precision). The works of all these scientists was truly remarkable and will have a profound impact on the future of medical research. a
Briefly explain the process of neurotransmission. Neurotransmission starts with the neuron, the most important part of the central nervous system. A neuron contains a cell body, axon, and dendrites. When a neuron receives an electrical impulse, the impulse travels away from the cell body down the axon. The axon breaks off into axon terminals. At the axon terminals, the electrical impulse creates a neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter is released into the synapse, a space between two neurons. If the neurotransmitter tries to stimulate a response of another neuron, it is an excitatory neurotransmitter. If the neurotransmitter does not stimulate a response of another neuron it is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. If a response is generated, the second neuron or postsynaptic neuron will receive an action potential at the site of the dendrite and the communication process will continue on. If a response is not generated, neurotransmitters left in the synapse will be absorbed by the first neuron or presynaptic neuron, a process known as reuptake. Neurotransmitters control our body functions, emotions, and
...s to interfere with bonding to the receptors. The final possibility uses CNP, which downregulates the activation in MAP kinase pathways in the chondrocytes (4).
On a cellular level, Mrs. Jones’ cells are dehydrated due to osmotic pressure changes related to her high blood glucose. Cells dehydrate when poor cellular diffusion of glucose causes increased concentrations of glucose outside of the cell and lesser concentrations inside of the cell. Diffusion refers to the movement of particles from one gradient to another. In simple diffusion there is a stabilization of unequal of particles on either side of a permeable membrane through which the particles move freely to equalize the particles on both sides. The more complex facilitated diffusion is a passive transport of large particles from a high concentration of particles to a lower concentration of particles with the aid of a transport protein (Porth, 2011). The cellular membranes in our bodies are semipermeable allowing for smaller molecules to flow freely from the intracellular to extracellular space. The glucose molecule, however; is too large to diffuse through the cellul...
Dendrites are located on either one or both ends of a cell.The peripheral nervous system then takes the sensory information from the outside and sends the messages by virtue of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that relay signals through the neural pathways of the spinal cord. The neurotransmitter chemicals are held by tiny membranous sacs located in the synaptic terminals. Synaptic terminals are located at the ends of nerve cells. The release of neurotransmitters from their sacs is stimulated once the electrical nerve impulse has finished travelling along a neuron and reaches the synaptic terminal. Afterward, neurotransmitters travel across synapses thus stimulating the production of an electrical charge that carries the nerve impulse onward. Synapses are junctions between neighboring neurons. This procedure is reiterated until either muscle movement occurs or the brain picks up on a sensory reaction. During this process, messages are being transmitted from one part of the body onto the next. The peripheral and central nervous system are two crucial subdivisions of the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous
...hich inherited traits, such as those for genetic disease, can be tracked over generations. Throughout out the course of human development, scientists will continue to find new new ways to help the human race through the discovery of the human gene inside of each of us, its uses, as well as complications, that can help the survival of our species.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals made by neurons and used by them to transmit signals to the other neurons or non-neuronal cells (e.g., skeletal muscle; myocardium, pineal glandular cells) that they innervate. The neurotransmitters produce their effects by being released into synapses when their neuron of origin fires (i.e., becomes depolarized) and then attaching to receptors in the membrane of the post-synaptic cells. This causes changes in the fluxes of particular ions across that membrane, making cells more likely to become depolarized, if the neurotransmitter happens to be excitatory, or less likely if it is inhibitory.
45- Koblizek TI, Siehoff A, Pitt A. Systematic analysis of complex signal transduction pathways using protein fragment complementation assays. Methods Mol Biol. 2013; 986: 179-185.
8. Becker W. M, Hardin J, Kleinsmith L.J an Bertoni G (2010) Becker’s World of the Cell, 8th edition, San Francisco, Pearson Education Inc- Accessed 23/11/2013.
Research on stem cells is advancing knowledge about how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. This promising area of science is also leading scientists to investigate the possibility of cell-based therapies to treat disease, which is often referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine. There is genuine scientific excitement over the concept of using the body's own cellular building blocks to regenerate damaged or ageing organs. Stem cells are one of the most fascinating areas of biology today. But like ...
These electrical signals arise from ion fluxes produced by nerve cell membranes that are selectively permeable to different ions. Neurons and glia (cells that support neurons) are specialized cells for electrical signaling over long distances. Understanding neuronal structure is important for understanding neuronal function. The number of synaptic inputs received by each nerve cell in our (human) nervous system varies from 1-100,000! This wide range reflects the fundamental purpose of nerve cells, to integrate information from other neurons.
Sperry, R. W. (1963, October 15). Chemoaffinity in the Orderly Growth of Nerve Fiber Patterns and Connection. Natioanl Academy of Science, 50(4), 703-710.
For years people have been looking for a cure for the devastating disease of cancer. Cancer is the third highest killer in the US with over 2,500,000 victims per year. Oncologists and scientists around the country are researching all forms of cancer in an effort to understand, treat, and ultimately defeat this disease. Already there have been numerous advances in the field, such as chemotherapy and gene therapy. One advance has been the use of a cell process known as apoptosis. By harnessing this normal cell process, scientists hope to have found an effective way to combat cancer.
National Institute of Health. (2004, June). Stem Cell Basics. Retrieved January 19, 2005 from http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/
These proteins come in two flavors, peripheral and integral proteins(Sadava 108), but both act similar in that they both regulate what goes in and what goes out. Integral proteins can also be trans-membrane proteins that are like gateways for the cell membrane and they are a route in which things from either side of the cell can cross the membrane layer. These trans-membrane proteins do not just let any substance pass through and do either require that the substance entering or leaving be specific, so that the protein can react with it. This would be like a hole on a golf course, golf balls can easily fit inside but a football or basketball can not fit inside. This is assuming that no energy is required for the transportation. Another way that these trans-membrane proteins can transport materials is by active transportation, and this requires chemical energy to help the protein transport the material from one place to another(Sadava 114). The chemical energy can be a signal that the protein receives from any place on the trans-membrane protein. If the cell needs something imported then it can signal the protein from the inside and the protein can react with the outside,
...ary part in genotypes of potential interest that human geneticists breeders, as well as evolutionary geneticists are investigating. However, although we have the capability to unravel experiments that the founders of quantitative genetics would have never imagined, but their basic, un-computational machinery that they developed is most easily adaptable to the latest analyses that will be needed. We are far from ‘letting-go’ molecular biologists from the mathematical techniques/systems, because this age in respect to genomics has been forced into accepting gratitude due to the major importance of quantitative methods as opposed to the new molecular genetics. As geneticists tend to map molecular variation as well as genomic data, quantitative genetics will be moving to the front position because of its relevance in this age of rapid advancement in molecular genetics.