Parasite Control
An interesting use for clonazepam is in the treatment of schistosomiasis, a disease caused by a parasite found in the fecal matter of snails. When it comes in contact with the skin, the parasite boroughs into the body and finds its way to the intestines and stomach, causing fever, aches, chills, muscle spasms, and death. The death rate for this subtropical disease is around 280,000 a year. Currently, praziquantel is the only therapeutic drug in use, but this can lead to permanent risk of parasite resistance in future, genetically evolved generations. Menezes (2012) combined the current treatment with a synthesized version of clonazepam called meclonazepam. This drug was able to slow the contractions of muscles, allowing the praziquantel to have more time to find and target the parasite. However, due to the synthesized drug’s increased adverse side effects which include psychomotor impairments, sedation, and ataxia, therapeutic use is not possible at this time. Further modifications of the synthesized drug are currently being worked on to help combat this fatal parasite.
Tolerance and Dependence
Tolerance and dependence of Clonazepam has become a concern in the new age of prescription pill abuse and rise in acceptance of psychiatry over the last several years. Clonazepam, like most benzodiazepines can be habit forming if not monitored by a doctor. Doses must be slowly increased and then later decreased to prevent withdrawal symptoms and physical and psychological need for the drug. If tapering is not done correctly or at all, severe anxiety can occur and increase the chances of relapse in addicts or continued use for psychiatric patients. This is why Clonazepam is often prescribed for short term use, with doct...
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Menezes, C., Rivera, G., Alves, M., do Amaral, D., Thibaut, J., Noël, F., & ... Lima, L. (2012). Synthesis, biological evaluation, and structure-activity relationship of clonazepam, meclonazepam, and 1,4-benzodiazepine compounds with schistosomicidal activity. Chemical Biology & Drug Design, 79(6), 943-949. doi:10.1111/j.1747-0285.2012.01354.x
Pandurangi, A., Nayak, R., Bhogale, G., Patil, N., Chate, S., & Chattopadhaya, S. (2012). Clonazepam in the treatment of essential palatal tremors. Indian Journal Of Pharmacology, 44(4), 528-530. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.99343
Vuilleumier, P., Besson, M., Desmeules, J., Arendt-Nielsen, L., & Curatolo, M. (2013). Evaluation of anti-hyperalgesic and analgesic effects of two benzodiazepines in human experimental pain: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Plos One, 8(3), e43896. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043896
Physostigmine is a drug used for the treatment of severe anticholinergic syndrome. Such as nervous delirium, urinary reten...
...ossible adverse interactions between an antidepressant medication and the substances a patient is abusing (such as the potential for increased sedation or intoxication).” (p 29).
Scopolamine is an alkaloid drug derived from plants in the Solanaceae family. This family of plants are called nightshade plants, and some examples are henbane and jimson weed. The chemical formula of scopolamine is C17H21NO4. Brand names include Scopoderm and Transderm-V. The medication works as an antagonist at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors by blocking the acetylcholine-mediated nerve impulses that travel to the inner ear. The inner ear is where the sense of balance is regulated in humans. Acetylcholine (Ach) is a major transmitter found in the autonomic ganglia that allows neurons to communicate for sensory input and muscle control. Muscarinic receptors are vital in the control of the central nervous system (CNS) and also parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and gastrointestinal processes. By blocking the action of these receptors, a result is possible impaired central and peripheral nervous system functioning. Inhibiting this functioning could also cause tachycardia, which can lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack) or angina (chest pain).
This paper will outline the background of Zolpidem; going through the history of the drug. The drugs path of movement through the body or the pharmacokinetics will also be explained. The process of absorption, distribution, and inactivation will be covered in the pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics of the drug will be covered; explaining the sites of action and the areas of the brain that are affected by the drug. The potential for tolerance and dependence to be developed will also be examined. The level of toxicity of Zolpidem along with the potential side effects. The drug’s effectiveness as a form of psychotherapy will also be analyzed.
There are many options for substance addiction treatment and utilizing medication as a means of eliminating substance use is one that has been called a double edge sword. There are two schools of thought with medically assisted treatment. First, let 's define medication assisted treatment (MAT): “it is the use of pharmacological medications, in combination with counseling and behavioral therapies, to provide a “whole patient” approach to the treatment of substance use disorders. Research indicates that a combination of medication and behavioral therapies can successfully treat substance use disorders, and for some people struggling with addiction, MAT can help sustain recovery” (Watkins, 2016). One side of this treatment option is that it provides that extra little nudge to start recovery with less or more withdrawal symptoms. For example, disulfiram is an alcohol aversion agent, that when taken with alcohol the person becomes very ill (Watkins, 2016). There are also other medications that help with reducing symptoms of withdrawal, such as methadone.
Antidepressant are a form of pharmacotherapy treatment developed to treat the symptoms of major depression. Antidepressants are used for many other types of conditions including anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, dysthymia, eating disorders, sleeping disorders, and substance abuse, pain syndromes, gastrointestional disorders. Antidepressants usually require several weeks to notice significant effects. There are no antidepressants or any medication that is completely free of adverse effects. This article explains that the adverse effects of antidepressant can decrease compliance and slow down the rate of recovery. It is important for one to take note of potential side-effects before choosing the best antidepressant to suit their personalized needs. Statistics show that about 28 percent of patients sto...
Addiction is a dependence on a substance where the individual who is affected feels defenseless and unable to stop the obsession to use a substance or prevent a particular behavior. Millions of Americans have addictions to drugs, alcohol, nicotine, and even to behaviors such as obsessive gambling. Pharmacotherapy is a treatment process in which a counselor can use a particular drug to counter act an addictive drug or behavior. Not all counselors agree with this type of treatment. However in order to provide a client with an ethical treatment and unbiased opinions they should be made aware of all scientific evidence of different treatment options. “Thus, attention to addiction pharmacotherapy is an ethical mandate no matter what prejudices a counselor may have” (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2008, p. 196). Some particular pharmacotherapy’s a counselor may use for the treatment of addiction are Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban), Disulfiram (Antabuse), Naltrexone (ReVia, Depade), Methadone (Dolophine), and Buprenorphine (Temgesic, Suboxone).
Addiction is a complex psychiatric disorder that consists of social and psychological factors, but at its most basic level it is a biological process. Addiction may come in many forms, but its primary choice of substance is drugs. In particular, prescription medications in the form of pills have become a major health problem, not only to those addicted but the clinicians who prescribe them. In order to fully understand this disorder, considering what brain mechanisms and functions are involved with addiction, the next area to look into is the factors that make the prescription drugs so addictive, along with long term effects, and to discover any new treatment options out in practice today, whether it be through medicine and/or counseling.
This raises an interesting question: What and/or where is the mechanism of action of clonazepam in the reduction of the
In the 1930’s Sandoz Pharmaceuticals in Switzerland began experimenting with new drugs. Albert Hofmann, a young chemist at Sandoz, was planning to discover a cure for individuals with respiratory and circulatory system issues. Hofmann started experimenting with the lysergic acid that is found in the Clavica pupurea fungus, rye, and other grains. Lysergic acid is used to cure headaches; Hofmann thought that the lysergic acid had potential to cure more than headaches. With the lysergic acid, he thought that diethylamide might be a possible match for a drug that could cure. Diethylamide is an amide that has the ability to bond with many proteins in the body. The brain is especially responsive to the diethylamide (Petechuk 12). In 1938 Hofmann synthesized lysergic acid with diethylamide. He then named the compou...
Reinarman, Craig and Peter D. A. Cohen and Hendrien L. Kaal. “The Limited Relevance of Drug
The major concepts deduced from the hypothesis fall under three categories: (1) multimodal intervention, (2) attentive care, and (3) patient participation. Multimodal intervention includes the concepts of potent pain medication, pharmacological adjuvants, and non-pharmacological adjuvants. Attentive care relates to the assessment of pain and side effects and intervention along with reassessments. Patient participation includes goal setting and patient education. The resulting outcome of these three categories working together is the balance between analgesia and side effects.
There are specific benzodiazepine receptors in the nervous system that mostly surrounds the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and limbic system. Barbiturates have their own binding sites and modulate the chloride channel. They increase the duration of this channel, while benzodiazepines increase the frequency. Also barbiturates are less selective than benzodiazepines on the CNS. Barbiturates are positive allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors. These drugs bind to this receptor at the beta end, which are distinct from GABA and benzodiazepine binding sites as well as block the AMPA receptor. Benzodiazepines increase the efficiency of GABA, which reduces neurons excitability, allowing functions in the brain to go in a calming effect due to less communication between neurons. Conduction of chloride ions across the cell membrane increases when the benzodiazepines bind to the GABA receptor. Benzodiazepines have many advantages over barbiturates making it favored in the pharmaceutical industry for hypnotics. The drugs have a much higher therapeutic index than barbiturates, making it a much safer drug to use due to a greater safety margin. Rem-type sleep is crucial for feeling rested after a sleep. Barbiturates suppress this greatly while Benzodiazepines doesn’t nearly as much. Both of these drugs assist with relaxation and tranquility but may also impair motor function. A possible side effect with patients who use barbiturate at a moderate dose is becoming hostile as well as being in a state of pleasurable intoxication. The danger of taking a high dose of barbiturates is severe as i...
The patient still suffers from anxiety and has been taking the Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor - Fluoxetine 20mg (BNF 2014: 251-254) once daily since his last visit and the patient reports very low motivation due to a recent separation a...
Pal, P. (2011). Guidelines for management of essential tremor. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology, 14(5), 25.