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Innate and Adaptive Immunity
Innate Immunity Quiz
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Recommended: Innate and Adaptive Immunity
Introduction The first line of invertebrate defense mechanism is believed to rely on innate immunity to limit pathogen infection. The innate immune system consists of physical, humoral and particularly cellular responses, which play a crucial role in phagocytosis, encapsulation and nodule formation. Moreover, the humoral barrier can also synthesize many antimicrobial peptides, pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs), prophenoloxidase and clotting cascade to eradicate pathogens [1-3]. However, all mechanisms have to occur in a concerted fashion for effective response. Accordingly, signaling pathways are an important mechanism to regulate a co-operation of immunity responses. Calcium ion (Ca2+), one of the most essential intracellular second messengers, plays a crucial role in signaling pathway to activate many biological functions including immune response. The signal transduction is induced by altering of intracellular concentration of Ca2+ which depends on various stresses such as pathogen infection [4-5]. Calmodulin (CaM), a ubiquitous intracellular Ca2+ sensor, is a small signaling protein (~17 kDa) that contains N- and C- terminal lobes linking with a flexible central linker. Each lobe composes of two EF hand motifs, helix-loop-helix structure, with two Ca2+ binding sites [6-7]. Ca2+ binding causes conformational change of CaM by bringing two helices of each lobe to more perpendicular conformation and expose hydrophobic residues on their surface, which makes it able to interact with specific target proteins and regulate their functions [8]. In marine invertebrate, CaM does not only regulate Ca2+ metabolism of intracellular processes, it has been believed to play a crucial role in extracellular processes including biomineralization leading to shell formation in mussel [5]. Moreover, it can regulate shrimp molting in crayfish, Procambarus clarkii [9]. In shrimp, CaM was firstly isolated from Crangon crangon in 1992. Their biological and physiological properties are alike with the other invertebrate CaMs [10]. Furthermore, altering expression level of CaM gene and protein in hemocytes of pathogen infected shrimp was detected in Litopenaeus vannamei and Penaeus monodon, respectively [4, 11-12]. It could be indicated that CaM might also relate to pathogen defense mechanism via signaling pathway. Although, CaM-mediated processes have been extensively study, the signal transduction that involved in pathogen defense mechanism is still limited. In this study, CaM recombinant protein from black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon (PmCaM), was characterized to verify a secondary structure and monitoring a conformational change upon calcium binding and identify CaM binding proteins involved in shrimp hemocytes. Moreover, PmCaM gene was silenced to determine whether it affects to Vibrio harveyi infected shrimp mortality.
The immunologic events that are happening at the local level during Carlton's acute inflammatory response would be:
The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body, and it defends the body from “foreign invaders.” Immunity can be divided in two three different defenses, and these are defined as first, second and third lines of defense. The first line of defense for the immune system is the primary defense against pathogens entering the body from the surface in order to prevent the start of disease and infection. Some examples of the first line of defense is the skin, protecting the external boundaries of the body, and the mucous membranes, protecting the internal boundaries of the body. Although the skin and mucous membranes work on the internal and external boundaries, they both release chemicals
The North American brine shrimp goes through several stages in development before reaching adulthood. The brine shrimp is first encased in a protective capsule within a female brine shrimp’s brood sac (Drewes, C, 2006). Here, egg development rapidly...
It is obvious that the sharks and rays of the ocean have existed for a tremendous length of time, 450 million years to be exact. They have survived without dying from bacterial infections, diseases or viruses. This may be because their immune system has changed minutely over those 450 million years. It seems that cartilaginous fish have four different classes of immunoglobulin and that shark antibodies lack the specificity that permits recognition of the subtle differences between two similar types of bacteria (Litman, 68). Sharks antibodies lack the capacity to bind more strongly to an antigen during the course of a prolonged immune response, which has been determined to be an advantage in fighting infection (Litman, 68). Some would think that this inhibits the shark from being able to fight off anything. However, this ancient immune system benefits the shark wholeheartedl...
The above events end in cell death, including depletion of ATP, changes in ionic concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium, increased lactate, acidosis, accumulation of oxygen free radicals, intracellular accumulation of water, and activation of proteolytic processes.(Deb, Sharma, & Hassan, 2010). Surrounding this is the penumbra(Rodriguez-Yanez et al., 2006)
Disease and parasitism play a pervasive role in all life. Many of these diseases start with microparasites, which are characterized by their ability to reproduce directly within an individual host. They are also characterized by their small size, short duration of infection, and the production of an immune response in infected and recovered individuals. Microparasites which damage hosts in the course of their association are recognized as pathogens. The level of the interaction and the extent of the resultant damage depends on both the virulence of the pathogen, as well as the host defenses. If the pathogen can overcome the host defenses, the host will be damaged and may not survive. If on the other hand the host defenses overcome the pathogen, the microparasite may fail to establish itself within the host and die.
“Immune Response: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia.” National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Web. 18 Dec. 2011. .
...on and forms an inhibitory complex with caveolin-1 leads to decrease in activity of enzyme in the cells. Transcription of Cav-1 gene is regulated by cholesterol responsive elements. Exposure of fibroblast and endothelial cells to free cholesterol and LDL Cholesterol was found to up regulate Cav-1 expression. Ca+2 mobilizing agents cause disinhibiton of e NOS by promoting Ca+2/Calmodulin triggered dissociation of Cav-1.
With carbon dioxide levels continuing to rise over the past few decades (fig. 1) and now into the future, concern has been brought to what is happening to the carbonate chemistry of the oceans. Because of these changes in chemistry, the ocean is becoming more acidic. Along with climate change, ocean acidification may be one of the greatest threats to our planet. The higher the ocean’s acidity level goes, the lower the calcium carbonate levels will drop. Even though this is a big scale issue, my goal is to focus on and underline what these changes will mean for the marine life that depend on the calcium carbonate in seawater. I will go in depth with specific regards to a study regarding pteropods or sea butterflies.
“This knowledge will help us design drugs that mimic the viral effects on these proteins to either activate a host’s immune response or shut it down,” said Dr. Michael Gale, associate ...
The purpose of this lab was to study the response of the genus Daphnia to chemical stimuli and to examine human responses to different stimuli. A stimulus is an incentive; it is the cause of a physical response. Stimuli can have a physical or chemical change; an example of a physical change is a change in temperature and sound. An example of chemical change would be changes in hormone levels and pH levels. Muscular activity or glandular secretions are responses that occurs when stimulus information effects the nervous and/or hormone system. Daphnia is a genus; it is a small crustacean that lives in fresh water. The body of the daphnia is visible and its internal organs are clearly seen thus it was chosen for this exercise. The
For example, some of the proteins contain pleckstrin homology domains that bind phosphoinositide and others contain C2 domains that bind membrane lipids in the presence of Ca2+, some proteins contain positively charged regions that bind to negatively charged phosphoglycerides and others contain covalently attached fatty acyl groups or prenyl groups that anchor them to membranes. Another example is Annexin shows Ca2+ dependent binding to the cytosolic surfaces of cell membranes. Ca2+ ions bind to the iface of each annexin and this promote protein–lipid interactions through a combination of electrostatic and hydrophobic mechanisms. The same result has been shown by crystallographic studies with phosphoglyceride analogs, suggested that some of the bound Ca2+ ions may bind directly to the oxygens of phospholipid head groups. Addition to this, adjacent membrane lipids that do not bind proteins directly may modulate the protein–lipid interactions, the binding of proteins to membrane surfaces may promote further changes in the structure and function of the proteins, and groups of proteins that bind to the same membrane surface may interact with each other to produce complex membrane
Inflammation which is part of the innate immune system is a process by which the body reacts to injury protecting it from infection and foreign substances with the help of the body’s white blood cells “Inflammation can be defined as the body’s local vascular and cellular response to injury caused by factors that invade and injure the body from the outside (exogenous factors) or factors within the body that result in cellular or tissue injury (endogenous) factors” (Battle, 2009, P 238). Factors such as bacteria, viruses, burns, frostbite, chemical irritants, immune reactions and physical injury are examples of factors that can cause inflammation through different mechanisms. It is a protective mechanism with rapid response that neutralizes or destroys agents that causes injury and creates a barrier that limit the injury and prevents its spread to normal tissues (Battle, 2009). Also, it has elements that removes debris and heals the wound generated by the injury. It can be divided into acute and chronic inflammation.
In the first study examined, “Effect of Different Salinities on the Survival and Growth of Artemina Spp,” researchers Soundaraparian and Saravanakumar designed an experiment to ascertain the ideal conditions for the growth of brine shrimp, or Artemina. In the Introduction, the scientists note the growing significance of Artemina, as it is now used as live feed for over 85 percent of cultured species around the world. Thus, a demand to grow huge quantities of Artemia has arisen, making this study incredibly relevant.
Adaptive immune system happens much quicker to the presence of an “infection creating potent mechanisms for neutralizing or eliminating the microbes. There are two types of adaptive immune responses: humeral immunity, mediated by antibodies produced by B lymphocytes, and cell-mediated immunity, mediated by T lymphocytes.”