Introduction
Asthma is considered as one of the most common chronic and complex respiratory conditions which involve both environmental and genetic factors (1,2). It is such a condition of the airways presents as constriction of the bronchi and bronchioles in response to irritants. The vascular resistance of the pulmonary system will increase as constriction leads to a smaller vascular diameter (3,4). The prevalence of the disease is predicted to rise making it one of the major life-threatening disorders. In the UK, the prevalence of asthma showed an increase two to three fold from 1955 to 2004 (5). Pharmacological interventions can be used such as bronchodilators. Salbutamol is an example of such a drug that alleviates airway constrictions during an asthma attack (6).
Further impairment of the airways can come through the hyperresponsiveness behaviour of the lung smooth muscle (7). The mechanical pressures and stimulus cause changes to the extracellular matrix (ECM) as the processes of fibrogenesis and fibrolysis take place. The combined production and degradation of the ECM creates irregular fibrotic tissues. This can ultimately lead to greater difficulties in dealing with the condition as lung surface area is effectively being reduced. Further hyperresponsiveness behaviour of the smooth muscle cells will lead to further airway fibrosis (8,9).
Fibrolysis is a process that involves the active enzyme plasminogen (10). Plasminogen is a precursor of plasmin and is converted via plasminogen activators such as the urokinase protein (uPA) or tissue plasminogen activator (tPA). In addition, plasminogen activator inhibitors (PAI-1 and PAI-2) for the plasminogen activation cascade play an important role in the regulation of...
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...r, J., Abraha, D., Del Mundo, J., Lee, H. and Oh, C. K. (2001) 'Possible role of the 4G/5G polymorphism of the plasminogen activator inhibitor I gene in the development of asthma', Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 108(2), 212-214.
(25) Kruithof, E. K. O., Baker, M. S. and Bunn, C. L. (1995) 'Biological and clinical aspects of plasminogen-activator inhibitor type-2', Blood, 86, 4007-4024.
(26) Swartz, J. M., Bystrom, J., Dyer, K. D., Nitto, T., Wynn, T. A. and Rosenberg, H. F. (2004) 'Plasminogen activator inhibitor-2 (PAI-2) in eosinophilic leukocytes', Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 76(4), 812-819.
(27) Johnson, P. R. A., Roth, M., Tamm, M., Hughes, M., Ge, Q., King, G., Burgess, J. K. and Black, J. L. (2001) 'Airway smooth muscle cell proliferation is increased in asthma', American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 164(3), 474-477.
Ibe, B. O., Portugal, A. M., & Raj, J. U. (2006). Levalbuterol inhibits human airway smooth muscle cell proliferation: Therapeutic implications in the management of asthma. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology , 225-236.
In the article "The Effect of Theophylline and ß2 agonists on Airway Reactivity" it says that more airway responsiveness occurs in asthma, chronic bronchitis, cystic fibrosis, and other diseases. Theophylline and ß2 agonists are used commonly for maintenance therapy for symptoms associated with the increased responsiveness. Both can reduce airway responsiveness to a variety of chemical irritants.. (Ahrens 15S)
For Ventolin to work optimally, situations that may trigger an asthma attack must be avoided. These situations include exercising in cold, dry air; smoking; breathing in dust; and exposure to allergens such as pet fur or pollens. Relating to the case study, a few of these may apply to the patient, such as exercising in the cold morning air and perhaps breathing in dust and allergens such as pollens or maybe from the eucalyptus in the Blue Mountains might have had an effect on his condition.
Amgen's first product, Epogen was approved in June 1989 for use in the United States. Neupogen (filgrastim) Amgen's second product, received approval for use in February 1991, is used for preventing infections in cancer patients that receive chemotherapy for bone marrow and peripheral blood progenitor cell transplantation patients and treatment for chronic neutropenia, which is a rare blood disorder. Amgen has research in the areas of hematopoiesis, neurobiology, inflammation/autoimmunity, and soft tissue repair and regeneration. Products from the research, in the four areas mentioned from above, may, sometime in the future, be used in treating conditions characterized by disorders of blood and bone marrow, neurodegenerative diseases such as ALS, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, or traumatic nerve injury.
Emphysema’s target is the lungs. The inflammation caused by emphysema damages the alveoli, or air sacs. Over time, the air sacs lose their elasticity, no longer able to expand and detract like your favorite Thanksgiving elastic waist band pants. After so many Thanksgiving dinners, the elastic fibers break, and fai...
...estoring blood flow to ischaemic myocardium and improving prognosis. In order to increase the level of fibrinolytic enzyme plasmin, plasminogen activator is given by intravenous injection or bolus injection. t-PA must be given within 12 hours of onset of chest pain to decrease the destruction to the damaged organ.
Erythrocytes are naturally a biconcave disc, which results in a larger membrane surface to volume ratio than a sphere shaped disc. These cells have the strength and flexibility needed to survive for 120 days in circulation. Their peripheral proteins stabilize the membrane and are responsible for their shape. These proteins include sprectrin, actin, ankryn, and band-4-protein. Peripheral proteins are attached to the red blood cell (RBC) membrane. Ankyrin-1 stabilizes the membrane by linking beta spectrin to band-3. The band-3-protein is part of the integral membrane and functions as an anion exchanger, glucose transporter, and water channel (Hamasaki, 1999).
Imagine a young child competing with his or her fellow classmates during recess and immediately losing the ability to breathe normally. He or she stops in the middle of the competition and falls to the ground while holding his or her chest trying to find air. When you are young, being able to keep up with your peers during recess and sporting events is very important, however, having asthma restricts this. Asthma has a significant impact on childhood development and the diagnosis of asthma for children 18 years and younger has dramatically increased over the years. Asthma is known as a “chronic inflammation of the small and large airways” with “evident bronchial hyper-responsiveness, airflow obstruction, and in some patients, sub-basement fibrosis and over-secretion of mucus” (Toole, 2013). The constant recreation of the lung walls can even occur in young children and “lead to permanent lung damages and reduced lung function” (Toole, 2013). While one of the factors is genetics, many of the following can be prevented or managed. Obesity, exposure to secondhand smoke, and hospitalization with pneumonia in the early years of life have all been suggested to increase children’s risk of developing asthma.
"Asthma is a pulmonary disease with the following characteristics: 1) airway obstruction that is reversible in most patients either spontaneously or with treatment; 2) airway inflammation; and 3) increased airway responsiveness to a variety of stimuli" (Enright, 1996, p. 375). There presently exist many varieties of asthma that differ in the severity, means of induction, and methods of treatment. One type is exercise-induced asthma. "Exercise-induced asthma (EIA) is a temporary increase in airway resistance and acute narrowing of the airway that occurs after several minutes of strenuous exercise, usually after the exercise had ceased" (Spector, 1993, p. 571). Perfectly healthy individuals with no history of asthma or allergies can experience EIA. EIA can be found in 5.6%-25% of the general population and in 40%-90% of asthmatics (Randolph, 1997). EIA has been recognized for over 300 years, but only recently have it's pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment been studied in detail.
Understanding the pathogenesis of asthma is a solution to creating treatments that are more effective. “For more than two decades now, asthma has been recognized as a chronic inflammatory disease involving inflammation of both the central and peripheral airways” (Tulic 71). This chronic inflammation results in structural changes in the airways of the asthmatic patient, referred to as airway remodeling. Airway remodeling is the cause of the symptoms seen in asthmatics during an attack like severe dyspnea, wheezing or difficulty in expiration (Kumar and Robbins 492). There are five major aspects of the body affected by asthma, mostly due to chronic infl...
Asthma is chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways characterized by recurring episodes of wheeling and breathlessness. It often exists with allergies and can be worsened through exposure to allergens. In fact, asthma is complicated syndromes that have neither single definition nor complete explanation to the point. In light of its treatment, it is worthwhile to notice that asthma cannot be cured, instead can be only managed by avoiding exposure to allergens and/or by using medications regularly.
Asthma is a disorder of the respiratory system in which the passages that enable air to pass into and out of the lungs periodically narrow, causing coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath. This narrowing is typically temporary and reversible, but in severe attacks, asthma may result in death. Asthma most commonly refers to bronchial asthma, an inflammation of the airways, but the term is also used to refer to cardiac asthma, which develops when fluid builds up in the lungs as a complication of heart failure. This article focuses on bronchial asthma.
In septic patients, increased levels of PAI-1 inhibit plasminogen activator (t-PA), which converts plasminogen to plasmin. Release of fibrin inhibits fibrinolysis by activation of thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI). In addition, the release of PAF causes platelet aggregation. This combination of inhibition of fibrinolysis, fibrin strand production and platelet aggregation contribute to a state of coagulopathy. This can lead to microcirculatory dysfunction with isolated or multiple organ dysfunction and cell death. Mr Hertz’s coagulation profile showed a fibrinogen level of 5.6 g/L, indicating that coagulopathies were underway in his system.
Most of you may not think of asthma as a killer disease, yet more that 5,000 Americans die of asthma each year. According to the Mayo Clinic web page, asthma also accounts for more that 400,000 hospital discharges annually. As the number of people with asthma increases, the more likely you are to come in contact with a person who has the disease. As far as I can remember, I have had asthma my whole life. My mother and one of my sisters also have asthma, so I have a first hand experience with it. This morning, I will discuss some interesting facts about asthma, I will specifically focus on what it is, warning signs, symptoms, causes, and the treatments that are used.
Asthma is a disease that currently has no cure and can only be controlled and managed through different treatment methods. If asthma is treated well it can prevent the flare up of symptoms such as coughing, diminish the dependence on quick relief medication, and help to minimize asthma attacks. One of the key factors to successful treatment of asthma is the creation of an asthma action plan with the help of a doctor that outlines medications and other tasks to help control the patient’s asthma ("How Is Asthma Treated and Controlled?"). The amount of treatment changes based on the severity of the asthma when it is first diagnosed and may be the dosage may be increased or decreased depending on how under control the patient’s asthma is. One of the main ways that asthma can be controlled is by becoming aware of the things that trigger attacks. For instance staying away from allergens such as pollen, animal fur, and air pollution can help minimize and manage the symptoms associated with asthma. Also if it is not possible to avoid the allergens that cause a patient’s asthma to flare up, they may need to see an allergist. These health professionals can help diagnosis what may need to be done in other forms of treatment such as allergy shots that can help decrease the severity of the asthma ("How Is Asthma Treated and Controlled?").